Drugs for amnesia in the ICU

American Journal of Critical Care

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 192-201

  Wagner, Bertil K J ^a   O'Hara, Dorene A ^c   Hammond, Jeffrey S ^b  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Department of Surgery ^*  (United States)

^c ROBERT WOOD JOHNSON MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANXIOLYTIC AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; HYPNOTIC SEDATIVE AGENT;

AGED; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; CASE REPORT; CONSCIOUS SEDATION; DRUG EFFECT; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MALE; MEMORY; METHODOLOGY; NURSING; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW;

AGED; ANTI-ANXIETY AGENTS; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; BENZODIAZEPINES; CHOLINERGIC ANTAGONISTS; CONSCIOUS SEDATION; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; MALE; MEMORY;

EID: 0031135698     PISSN: 10623264     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4037/ajcc1997.6.3.192     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Hundelshausen B, Tempel G, Schneck HJ, Jelen-Esselborn S, Kellner K. Experiences and impressions of patients in a surgical traumatological intensive care unit. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther. 1984;19:297-301.
2. Turner JS, Briggs SJ, Springhorn HE, Potgieter PD. Patients' recollection of intensive care unit experience. Crit Care Med. 1990;18:966-968.
3. Aitkenhead AR. Analgesia and sedation in intensive care. Br J Anaesth. 1989;63:196-206.
4. Ghoneim MM, Mewaldt SP. Benzodiazepines and human memory: a review. Anesthesiology. 1990;72:926-938.
5. Lister RG. The amnesic action of benzodiazepines in man. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1985;9:87-94.
6. Barbee JG. Memory, benzodiazepines, and anxiety: integration of theoretical and clinical perspectives. J Clin Psychiatry. 1993;54:86-97.
7. Brown J, Lewis V, Brown M, Horn G, Bowes JB. A comparison between transient amnesias induced by two drugs (diazepam or lorazepam) and amnesia of organic origin. Neuropsychologia. 1982;20:55-70.
8. Weinberger NM, Gold PE, Sternberg DB. Epinephrine enables Pavlovian fear conditioning under anesthesia. Science. 1984;223:605-607.
9. Pandit SK, Dundee JW, Keilty SR. Amnesia studies with intravenous premedication. Anaesthesia. 1971;26:421-428.
10. Dundee JW, Haslett WHK. The benzodiazepines. A review of their actions and uses relative to anaesthetic practice. Br J Anaesth. 1970;42:217-234.
11. Herr GP, Conner JT, Katz RL, Dorey F, L'Armand J, Schehl D. Diazepam and droperidol as IV premedicants. Br J Anaesth. 1979;51:537-542.
12. Flinn FJ, Wineland P, Peterson LJ. Duration of amnesia during sedation with diazepam and pentazocine: preliminary report. J Oral Surg. 1975;33:23-26.
13. Abramowicz M, ed. Choice of benzodiazepines. Med Lett Drugs Ther. 1981;23:41-43.
14. Hennessy MJ, Kirkby KC, Montgomery IM. Comparison of the amnesic effects of midazolam and diazepam. Psychopharmacology. 1991;103:545-550.
15. Vinik HR, Bradley EL, Kissin I. Comparison of midazolam dose-response curves for amnesia and hypnosis. Anesthesiology. 1992;77:A207. Abstract.
16. Persson MP, Nilsson A, Hartvig P. Relation of sedation and amnesia to plasma concentrations of midazolam in surgical patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1988;43:324-331.
17. Nuotto EJ, Korttila KT, Lichtor JL, Ostman PL, Rupani G. Sedation and recovery of psychomotor function after intravenous administration of various doses of midazolam and diazepam. Anesth Analg. 1992;74:265-271.
18. Mathews HM, Carson IW, Collier PS, et al. Midazolam sedation following open heart surgery. Br J Anaesth. 1987;59:557-560.
19. Jacobs JR, Reves JG, Marty J, White WD, Bai SA, Smith LR. Aging increases pharmacodynamic sensitivity to the hypnotic effects of midazolam. Anesth Analg. 1995;80:143-148.
20. Allonen H, Ziegler G, Klotz U. Midazolam kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1981;30:653-661.
21. Harper KW, Collier PS, Dundee JW, Elliott P, Halliday NJ, Lowry KG. Age and nature of operation influence the pharmacokinetics of midazolam. Br J Anaesth. 1985;57:866-871.
22. Dundee JW, Collier PS, Carlisle RJT, Harper KW. Prolonged midazolam elimination half-life. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1986;21:425-429.
23. Maitre PO, Funk B, Crevoisier C, Ha HR. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in patients recovering from cardiac surgery. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;37:161-166.
24. Nishiyama T, Hirasaki A, Toda N, Iwasaki T, Konishi H, Seto K. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in patients with liver damage for hepatectomy. Masui. 1993;42:871-875.
25. Trouvin JH, Farinotti R, Haberer JP, Servin F, Chauvin M, Duvaldestin P. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in anaesthetized cirrhotic patients. Br J Anaesth. 1988;60:762-767.
26. Pentikainen PJ, Valisalmi L, Himberg JJ, Crevoisier C. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam following intravenous and oral administration in patients with chronic liver disease and in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;29:272-277.
27. Calvo R, Suarez E, Rodriguez-Sasiain JM, Martinez I. The influence of renal failure on the kinetics of intravenous midazolam: an "in vitro" and "in vivo" study. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1992;78:311-320.
28. Driessen JJ, Vree TB, Guelen PJ. The effects of acute changes in renal function on the pharmacokinetics of midazolam during long-term infusion in ICU patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 1991;42:149-155.
29. Vree TB, Shimoda M, Driessen JJ, et al. Decreased plasma albumin concentration results in increased volume of distribution and decreased elimination of midazolam in intensive care patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1989;46:537-544.
30. Shafer A, Dose VA, White PF. Pharmacokinetic variability of midazolam infusions in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1990;18:1039-1041.
31. Malacrida R, Fritz ME, Suter PM, Crevoisier C. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam administered by continuous intravenous infusion to intensive care patients. Crit Care Med. 1991;20:1123-1126.
32. Shelly MP, Mendel L, Park GR. Failure of critically ill patients to metabolise midazolam. Anaesthesia. 1987;42:619-626.
33. Byatt CM, Lewis LD, Dawling S, Cochrane GM. Accumulation of midazolam after repeated dosage in patients receiving mechanical ventilation in an intensive care unit. BMJ. 1984;289:799-800.
34. Dirksen MSC, Vree TB, Driessen JJ. Clinical pharmacokinetics of long-term infusion of midazolam in critically ill patients: preliminary results. Anaesth Intens Care. 1987;15:440-444.
35. Michalk S, Moncorge C, Fichelle A, Huot O, Servin F, Farinotti R, Desmonts JM. Midazolam infusion for basal sedation in intensive care: absence of accumulation. Intensive Care Med. 1988;15:37-41.
36. McNulty SE, Gratch D, Costello D, Heropoulos M, Kim JY. The effect of midazolam and lorazepam on postoperative recovery after cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg. 1995;81:404-407.
37. Westphal LM, Cheng EY, White PF, Sladen RN, Rosenthal MH, Sung ML. Use of midazolam infusion for sedation following cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 1987;67:257-262.
38. Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ. The use of benzodiazepines in clinical practice. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1981;11:55-95.
39. Dundee JW, Lilburn JK, Nair SG, George KA. Studies of drugs given before anaesthesia. XXVI: lorazepam. Br J Anaesth. 1977;49:1047-1055.
40. Harry TVA, Richards DJ. Lorazepam: a study in psychomotor depression. Br J Clin Pract. 1972;26:371-373.
41. Scharf MB, Khosla N, Brocker N, Goff P. Differential amnestic properties of short- and long-acting benzodiazepines. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984;45:51-53.
42. Dundee JW, George KA. The amnesic action of diazepam, flunitrazepam and lorazepam in man. Acta Anaesth Belg. 1976;27[suppl]:3-11.
43. Heisterkamp DV, Cohen PJ. The effect of intravenous premedication with lorazepam (Ativan), pentobarbitone or diazepam on recall. Br J Anaesth. 1975;47:79-81.
44. Aleniewski MI, Bulas BJ, Maderazo L, Mendoza C. Intramuscular lorazepam versus pentobarbital premedication: a comparison of patient sedation, anxiolysis, and recall. Anesth Analg. 1977;56:489-492.
45. Conner JT, Parson N, Katz RL, Watner S, Bellville JW. Evaluation of lorazepam and pentobarbital as surgical premedicants. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;19:24-29.
46. Healey M, Pickens R, Meisch R, McKenna T. Effects of clorazepate, diazepam, lorazepam, and placebo on human memory. J Clin Psychiatry. 1983;44:436-439.
47. Kumar R, Mac DS, Gabrielli WF, Goodwin DW. Anxiolytics and memory: a comparison of lorazepam and alprazolam. J Clin Psychiatry. 1987;48:158-160.
48. Pandit SK, Heisterkamp DV, Cohen PJ. Further studies of the anti-recall effect of lorazepam: a dose-time-effect relationship. Anesthesiology. 1976;45:495-500.
49. Blitt CD, Petty WC, Wright WA, Wright B. Clinical evaluation of injectable lorazepam as a premedicant: the effect on recall. Anesth Analg. 1976;55:522-525.
50. Dundee JW, Johnson HM, Gray RC, Lorazepam as a sedative-amnesic in an intensive care unit. Curr Med Res Opin. 1976;4:290-295.
51. Deppe SA, Sipperly ME, Sargent AI, Kuwik RJ, Thompson DR. Intravenous lorazepam as an amnestic and anxiolytic agent in the intensive care unit: a prospective study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1248-1252.
52. Pohlman AS, Simpson KP, Hall JB. Continuous intravenous infusions of lorazepam versus midazolam for sedation during mechanical ventilatory support: a prospective, randomized study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:1241-1247.
53. Elliot HW. Metabolism of lorazepam. Br J Anaesth. 1976;48:1017.
54. Kraus JW, Desmond PV, Marshall JP, Johnson RF, Schenker S, Wilkinson GR. Effects of aging and liver disease on disposition of lorazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1978;24:411-419.
55. Shapiro BA, Warren J, Egol AB, et al. Practice parameters for intravenous analgesia and sedation for adult patients in the intensive care unit: an executive summary. Crit Care Med. 1995;23:1596-1600.
56. Baskin SI, Esdale A. Is chlordiazepoxide the rational choice among benzodiazepines? Pharmacotherapy. 1982;2:110-119.
57. Rickels K. Use of antianxiety agents in anxious outpatients. Psychopharmacology. 1978;58:1-17.
58. Liljequist R, Pulva E, Linnoila M. Effects on learning and memory of 2-week treatments with chlordiazepoxide lactam, N-desmethyldiazepam, oxazepam and methyloxazepam, alone or in combination with alcohol. Int Pharmacopsychiatry. 1979;14:190-198.
59. Lin KM, Friedel RO. Relationship of plasma levels of chlordiazepoxide and metabolites to clinical response. Am J Psychiatry. 1979;136:18-23.
60. Niedermeyer E. Electroencephalographic studies on the anticonvulsive action of intravenous diazepam. Eur Neurol. 1970;3:88-96.
61. Verrier M, Ashby P, Macleod S. Diazepam effect on reflex activity in patients with complete spinal lesions and in those with other causes of spasticity. Arch Phys Med Rehab. 1977;58:148-153.
62. Kerry RJ, Jenner FA. A double-blind crossover comparison of diazepam (Valium, Ro5-2807) with chlordiazepoxide (Librium) in the treatment of neurotic anxiety. Psychopharmacologia. 1962;3:302-306.
63. Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI, MacLeod SM, Sellers EM. Clinical pharmacokinetics of chlordiazepoxide. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1978;3:381-394.
64. Barton K, Auld PW, Scott MG, Nicholls DP. Chlordiazepoxide metabolite accumulation in liver disease. Med Toxicol. 1989;4:73-76.
65. Roberts RK, Wilkinson GR, Branch RA, Schenker S. Effect of age and parenchymal liver disease on the disposition and elimination of chlordiazepoxide (Librium). Gastroenterology. 1978;75:479-485.
66. Reves JG, Flezzani P, Kissin I. Pharmacology of intravenous anesthetic induction drugs. In: Kaplan JA, ed. Cardiac Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1987:125-150.
67. Peduto VA, Concas A, Santoro G, Biggio G, Gessa GL. Biochemical and electrophysiologic evidence that propofol enhances GABA-ergic transmission in the rat brain. Anesthesiology. 1991;75:1000-1009.
68. Alkire MT, Haier RJ, Barker SJ, Shah NK, Wu JC, Kao YJ. Cerebral metabolism during propofol anesthesia in humans studied with positron emission tomography. Anesthesiology. 1995;82:393-403.
69. Vuyk J, Lim T, Engbers FHM, Burm AGL, Vletter AA, Bovill JG. The pharmacodynamic interaction of propofol and alfentanil during lower abdominal surgery in women. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:8-22.
70. Wessén A, Persson PM, Nilsson A, Hartvig P. Concentration-effect relationships of propofol after total intravenous anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1993;77:1000-1007.
71. Polster MR, Gray PA, O'Sullivan G, McCarthy RA, Park GR. Comparison of the sedative and amnesic effects of midazolam and propofol. Br J Anaesth. 1993;70:612-616.
72. Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Wronski M, Marino P, Tong WP, Bedford RF. EEG and memory effects of low-dose infusions of propofol. Br J Anaesth. 1992;69:246-254.
73. Schaer H, Prochacka K. Erholung, Amnesie und Befindlichkeit nach Propofol im Vergleich zu Thiopental. Anaesthesist. 1990;39:306-312.
74. Chortkoff BS, Gonsowski CT, Bennett HL, et al. Subanesthetic concentrations of desflurane and propofol suppress recall of emotionally charged information. Anesth Analg. 1995;81:728-736.
75. Mirenda J, Broyles G. Propofol as used for sedation in the ICU. Chest. 1995;108:539-548.
76. Kanto J, Gepts E. Pharmacokinetic implications for the clinical use of propofol. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1989;17:308-326.
77. White PF, Schüttler J, Shafer A, Stanski DR, Horai Y, Trevor AJ. Comparative pharmacology of the ketamine isomers: studies in volunteers. Br J Anaesth. 1985;57:197-203.
78. Grant IS, Nimmo WS, Clements JA. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of IM and oral ketamine. Br J Anaesth. 1981;53:805-809.
79. Pandit SK, Dundee JW, Bovill JG. Clinical studies of induction agents XXXVII: amnestic action of ketamine. Br J Anaesth. 1971;43:362-364.
80. Pandit SK, Kothary SP, Kumar SM. Low dose intravenous infusion technique with ketamine: amnesic, analgesic and sedative effects in human volunteers. Anaesthesia. 1980;35:669-675.
81. Reich DL, Silvay G. Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience. Can J Anaesth. 1989;36:186-197.
82. Köppel C, Arndt I, Ibe K. Effects of enzyme induction, renal and cardiac function on ketamine plasma kinetics in patients with ketamine long-term analgosedation. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet. 1990;15:259-263.
83. Adams HA, Claussen E, Gebhardt B, Biscoping J, Hempelmann G. Analgosedation with ketamine and midazolam in patients with exogenous catecholamine therapy. Anaesthetist. 1991;40:238-244.
84. Gallagher CS, Hann JR. Clinical assessment of etomidate for outpatient general anesthesia. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1985;43:860-864.
85. Wagner RL, White PF, Kan PB, Rosenthal MH, Feldman D. Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis by the anesthetic etomidate. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:1415-1421.
86. Tietjen CS, Hum PD, Ulatowski JA, Kirsch JR. Treatment modalities for hypertensive patients with intracranial pathology: options and risks. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:311-322.
87. Turcant A, Delhumeau A, Prmel-Cabic A, et al. Thiopental pharmacokinetics under conditions of long-term infusion. Anesthesiology. 1985;63:50-54.
88. Wermeling DP, Blouin RA, Porter WH, Rapp RP, Tibbs PA. Pentobarbital pharmacokinetics in patients with severe head injury. Drug Intell Clin Pharm. 1987;21:459-463.
89. Browne TR, Evans JE, Szabo GK, Evans BA, Greenblatt DJ. Studies with stable isotopes II: phenobarbital pharmacokinetics during monotherapy. J Clin Pharmacol. 1985;25:51-58.
90. Moerman N, Bonke B, Oosting J. Awareness and recall during general anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1993;79:454-464.
91. Lowenstein E, Hallowell P, Levine FH, et al. Cardiovascular response to large doses of intravenous morphine in man. N Engl J Med. 1969;281:1389-1393.
92. Stanley TH, Webster LR. Anesthetic requirements and cardiovascular effects of fentanyl-oxygen and fentanyl-diazepam-oxygen anesthetic in man. Anesth Analg. 1978;57:411-416.
93. Lowenstein E, Philbin DM. Narcotic "anesthesia" in the eighties. Anesthesiology. 1981;55:195-197.
94. Levine RL. Pharmacology of intravenous sedatives and opioids in critically ill patients. Crit Care Clin. 1994;10:709-731.
95. Citron ML, Johnston-Early A, Fossieck BE, et al. Safety and efficacy of continuous intravenous morphine for severe cancer pain. Am J Med. 1984;77:199-204.
96. Bennett RL, Batenhorst RL, Bivens BA. Patient-controlled analgesia: a new concept of postoperative pain relief. Ann Surg. 1982;195:700-705.
97. Thorpe DH. Opiate structure and activity - a guide to understanding the receptor. Anesth Analg. 1984;63:143-151.
98. Kerr B, Hill H, Coda B, et al. Concentration-related effects of morphine on cognition and motor control in human subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1991;5:157-166.
99. Ginsberg B, Perno R, Gan RJ, Grichnick K, Coleman R, Glass PSA. Onset and duration of action of three doses of morphine. Anesth Analg. 1996;82:S130. Abstract.
100. Braida D, Gori E, Sala M. Relationship between morphine and etonitazene-induced working memory impairment and analgesia. Eur J Pharmacol. 1994;271:497-504.
101. Veselis RA, Reinsel RA, Feshchenko VA, et al. Impaired memory and behavioral performance with fentanyl at low plasma concentrations. Anesth Analg. 1994;79:952-960.
102. Olson GA, Olson RD, Kastin AJ. Endogenous opiates: 1993. Peptides. 1994;15:1513-1556.
103. Hilgenberg JC. Intraoperative awareness during high-dose fentanyl-oxygen anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1981;54:341-343.
104. Mummaneni N, Rao TLK, Montoya A. Awareness and recall with high-dose fentanyl-oxygen anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1980;59:948-949.
105. Hasselstrom J, Efiksson S, Persson A, Rane A, Svensson JO, Sawe J. The metabolism and bioavailability of morphine in patients with severe liver cirrhosis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;29:289-297.
106. D'Honneur G, Gilton A, Sandouk P, Scherrmann JM, Duvaldestin P. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of morphine and morphine glucuronides after oral morphine: the influence of renal failure. Anesthesiology. 1994;81:87-93.
107. Sear JW, Hand CW, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Studies on morphine disposition: Influence of renal failure on the kinetics of morphine and its metabolites. Br J Anaesth. 1989;62:28-32.
108. Osborne R, Joel S, Grebenik K, Trew D, Slevin M. The pharmacokinetics of morphine and morphine glucuronides in kidney failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1993;54:158-167.
109. Mostert JW, Evers JL, Hobika GH, et al. Cardiorespiratory effects of anesthesia with morphine or fentanyl in chronic renal failure and cerebral toxicity after morphine. Br J Anaesth. 1971;43:1053-1060.
110. Szeto HH, Inturrisi CE, Houde R, Saal S, Cheigh J, Reidenberg MM. Accumulation of normeperidine, an active metabolite of meperidine, in patients with renal failure or cancer. Ann Intern Med. 1977;86:738-741.
111. Wolkowitz OM, Tinklenberg JR, Weingartner H. A psychopharmacological perspective of cognitive functions. II. Specific pharmacologic agents. Neuropsychobiology. 1985;14:133-156.
112. Riker RR, Fraser GL, Cox PM. Continuous infusion of haloperidol controls agitation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:433-440.
113. Mungas D, Magliozzi JR, Laubly JN, Blunden D. Effects of haloperidol on recall and information processing in verbal and spatial learning. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1990;14:181-193.
114. Eitan N, Levin Y, Ben-Artzi E, Levy A, Neumann M. Effects of antipsychotic drugs on memory functions of schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1992;85:74-76.
115. Werry JS, Aman MG. Methylphenidate and haloperidol in children. Effects on attention, memory, and activity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975;32:790-795.
116. Conner JT, Herr G, Katz RL, Doery F, Pagano RR, Schehl D. Droperidol, fentanyl and morphine for IV surgical premedication. Br. J Anaesth. 1978;50:463-469.
117. Carruthers SG, Shoeman DW, Hignite CE, Azarnoff DL. Correlation between plasma diphenhydramine level and sedative and antihistamine effects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1978;23:375-382.
118. Wallace G, Mindin LJ. A controlled double-blind comparison of intramuscular lorazepam and hydroxyzine as surgical premedicants. Anesth Analg. 1984;63:571-576.
119. Wender RH, Conner JT, Bellville JW, Schehl D, Dorey F, Katz RL. Comparison of IV diazepam and hydroxyzine as surgical premedicants. Br J Anaesth. 1977;49:907-912.
120. Conner JT, Bellville JW, Wender R, Schehl D, Dorey F, Katz RL. Morphine, scopolamine and atropine as intravenous surgical premedicants. Anesth Analg. 1977;56:606-614.
121. Frumin MJ, Herekar VR, Jarvik ME. Amnesic actions of diazepam and scopolamine in man. Anesthesiology. 1976;45:406-412.
122. Longo VG. Behavioral and electroencephalographic effects of atropine and related compounds. Pharmacol Rev. 1966;18:965-996.
123. Smith DS, Orkin FK, Gardner SM, Zakeosian G. Prolonged sedation in the elderly after intraoperative atropine administration. Anesthesiology. 1979;51:348-349.
124. Grevert P, Albert LH, Inturrisi CE, Goldstein A. Effects of eight-hour naloxone infusions on human subjects. Biol Psychiatry. 1983;18:1375-1392.
125. Volavka J, Dornbush R, Mallya A, Cho D. Naloxone fails to affect short-term memory in man. Psychiat Res. 1979;1:89-92.
126. Cohen RM, Cohen MR, Weingartner H, Pickar D, Murphy DL. High-dose naloxone affects task performance in normal subjects. Psychiat Res. 1983;8:127-136.
127. Purdell-Lewis JG, Blair DM, McLeod CA. Studies in fentanyl-supplemented anaesthesia: awareness and effect of naloxone on early post-operative recovery. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1981;28:57-61.
128. Shupak RC, Harp JR. Comparison between high-dose sufentanil-oxygen and high-dose fentanyl-oxygen for neuroanaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 1985;57:375-381.
129. Wolkowitz OM, Tinklenberg JR. Naloxone's effect on cognitive functioning in drug-free and diazepam-treated normal humans. Psychopharmacology. 1985;85:221-223.
130. Ghoneim M, Block RI, Sum Ping ST, El-Zahaby HM, Hinrichs JV. The interactions of midazolam and flumazenil on human memory and cognition. Anesthesiology. 1993;79:1183-1192.
131. Katz JA, Fragen RJ, Dunn KL. Flumazenil reversal of midazolam sedation in the elderly. Reg Anesth. 1991;16:247-252.
132. Anonymous. Reversal of central nervous system effects by flumazenil after intravenous conscious sedation with midazolam: report of a multicenter study. Clin Ther. 1992;14:861-877.
133. Anonymous. Reversal of central benzodiazepine effects by flumazenil after conscious sedation produced by intravenous diazepam. Clin Ther. 1992;14:895-909.
134. Fan SZ, Liu CC, Yu HY, Chao CC, Lin SM. Lack of effect of flumazenil on the reversal of propofol anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39:299-301.
135. O'Hara DA, Chen B. Applications of biomedical engineering to anesthesia. Progr Anesthes. 1995;9:375-396.
136. Wilder-Smith OHG, Despland PA, Bettex D, Decosterd LA, Ravussin PA. Thiopental or propofol interactions with midazolam: clinical and EEG endpoints. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A368. Abstract.
137. Scott JC, Ponganis KV, Stanski DR. EEG quantitation of narcotic effect: the comparative pharmacodynamics of fentanyl and alfentanil. Anesthesiology. 1985;62:234-241.
138. Moore K, Howie MB, Jopling MW, Lanzerotte MJ, Romanelli VA, Kelly WB. EEG characteristics during continuous infusion of remifentanil for CABG surgery. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A377. Abstract.
139. O'Hara DA, Bogen DK, Noordergraaf A. The use of computers for controlling the delivery of anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1992;77:563-581.
140. Spencer EM, Green JL, Willatts SM. Continuous monitoring of depth of sedation by EEG spectral analysis in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Br J Anaesth. 1994;73:649-654.
141. Kearse LA, Manberg P, Chamoun N, deBros F, Zaslavsky A. Bispectral analysis of the electroencephalogram correlates with patient movement to skin incision during propofol/nitrous oxide anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1994;81:1365-1370.
142. Glass P, Gan TJ, Sebel PS, et al. Comparison of the bispectral index (BIS) and measured drug concentration for the monitored effects of propofol, midazolam, alfentanil and isoflurane. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A374. Abstract.
143. Liu J, Singh H, White PF. Use of EEG bispectral index to predict the depth of sedation and amnesia with propofol and midazolam. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A124. Abstract.
144. Kearse L, Rosow C, Sebel P, et al. The bispectral index correlates with sedation/hypnosis and recall: comparisons using multiple agents. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A507. Abstract.
145. Watt RC, Sisemore CS, Fanemoto A, Malan TP, Frink EJ. Neural networks applied to bispectral analysis of EEG during anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:A503. Abstract.