Governing, campaigning, and organizing the presidency: An electoral connection?

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 112, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 51-66

  Tenpas, Kathryn Dunn ^a   Dickinson, Matthew J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031098160     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2658162     Document Type: Article

References (157)

1. 1 For deuils, see the articles by Charles O. Jones, Colin Campbell, and Bert Rockman in Campbell and Rockman, eds., The Clinton Presidency: First Appraisals (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996).
2. 2 Those difficulties are chronicled below.
3. 3 See Nelson Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 105-114; Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 149-151; John Hart, Presidential Branch, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1995), 128-129; and Richard Rose, "Learning to Govern or Learning to Campaign?" in Alexander Heard and Michael Nelson, eds., Presidential Selection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 53-74.
4. 3 See Nelson Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 105-114; Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 149-151; John Hart, Presidential Branch, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1995), 128-129; and Richard Rose, "Learning to Govern or Learning to Campaign?" in Alexander Heard and Michael Nelson, eds., Presidential Selection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 53-74.
5. 3 See Nelson Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 105-114; Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 149-151; John Hart, Presidential Branch, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1995), 128-129; and Richard Rose, "Learning to Govern or Learning to Campaign?" in Alexander Heard and Michael Nelson, eds., Presidential Selection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 53-74.
6. 3 See Nelson Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 105-114; Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 149-151; John Hart, Presidential Branch, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1995), 128-129; and Richard Rose, "Learning to Govern or Learning to Campaign?" in Alexander Heard and Michael Nelson, eds., Presidential Selection (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987), 53-74.
7. 4 See Polsby, Party Reform; Lowi, Personal President; and James Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1988).
8. 4 See Polsby, Party Reform; Lowi, Personal President; and James Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1988).
9. 4 See Polsby, Party Reform; Lowi, Personal President; and James Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1988).
10. 5 By "traditional party structure," we mean state and local party chapters working in conjunction with the Democratic and Republican national party committees. By presidential "staff" we refer to those individuals formally linked to the president through hierarchical reporting relationships and whose primary incentives (pay, title, tenure, and jurisdiction) are subject to direct presidential influence. Three staff elements in particular will concern us here: the White House Office; members of the presidential cabinet composed of the heads of the major executive branch departments; and the senior members of the president's campaign organization.
11. 6 Charles T. Royer, ed., Campaign for President: The Managers Look at '92 (Hollis, NH: Hollis Publishing Company, 1994), 286.
12. 7 Interview with Marlin Fitzwater, 19 May 1994. Fitzwater served as press secretary to Presidents Bush and Reagan.
13. 8 Interview with Clayton Yeutter, 25 May 1994.
14. 9 Royer, Campaign for President, 114.
15. 10 Ibid., 115-116.
16. 11 Ibid., 106.
17. 12 Interview with Stuart Spencer, 13 April 1992. Spencer served as a campaign adviser to Presidents Ford and Reagan.
18. 13 Interview with Marlin Fitzwater, 19 May 1994.
19. 14 Kenneth T. Walsh, "Return of Baker and the Handlers," U.S. News & World Report, 13 January 1992, 31; see also Ann Devroy, "Skinner Reorganizes Personnel," Washington Post, 28 February 1992.
20. 14 Kenneth T. Walsh, "Return of Baker and the Handlers," U.S. News & World Report, 13 January 1992, 31; see also Ann Devroy, "Skinner Reorganizes Personnel," Washington Post, 28 February 1992.
21. 15 John E. Yang, "Fitzwater Appointed PR Coordinator," Washington Post, 27 January 1992. Roughly six months later, Skinner brought in a new communications director, Steven Provost. See Ann Devroy, "Bush Communications Chief Named," Washington Post, 9 July 1992.
22. 15 John E. Yang, "Fitzwater Appointed PR Coordinator," Washington Post, 27 January 1992. Roughly six months later, Skinner brought in a new communications director, Steven Provost. See Ann Devroy, "Bush Communications Chief Named," Washington Post, 9 July 1992.
23. 16 See James Gerstenzang, "Early Praise for Skinner Tempered by Complaints," Los Angeles Times, 12 April 1992.
24. 17 Ann Devroy, "Yeutter Offered Top Bush Policy Post As White House Retools for Campaign," Washington Post, 25 January 1992.
25. 18 Royer, Campaign for President, 154.
26. 19 Ibid.
27. 20 Ibid., 154-155.
28. 21 Ann Devroy, "Baker Said Likely To Resign Post," Washington Post, 22 July 1992. See also Michael Wines, "Baker to Assume White House Post to Run Campaign," New York Times, 22 July 1992.
29. 21 Ann Devroy, "Baker Said Likely To Resign Post," Washington Post, 22 July 1992. See also Michael Wines, "Baker to Assume White House Post to Run Campaign," New York Times, 22 July 1992.
30. 22 Paul F. Horvitz, "Bush Appoints Baker As His Chief of Staff, New Agenda Pledged," International Herald Tribune, 14 August 1992.
31. 23 On Gray's warning, see R. W. Apple, "Baker's Racing to Rescue: Harder Now Than in '88," International Herald Tribune, 15-16 August 1992.
32. 24 David Carney in Royer, Campaign for President, 286.
33. 25 Ibid., 287.
34. 26 Due to space constraints, we have opted not to discuss FDR's three reelection campaigns, although there is much evidence to believe they were largely run through the party apparatus. For details, see James Farley, Jim Farley's Story: The Roosevelt Years (New York: Whittlesey House/McGraw-Hill, 1948); and Ed J. Flynn, You're the Boss (New York: Viking Press, 1947).
35. 26 Due to space constraints, we have opted not to discuss FDR's three reelection campaigns, although there is much evidence to believe they were largely run through the party apparatus. For details, see James Farley, Jim Farley's Story: The Roosevelt Years (New York: Whittlesey House/McGraw-Hill, 1948); and Ed J. Flynn, You're the Boss (New York: Viking Press, 1947).
36. 27 Clark Clifford Oral History cited in Bradley Patterson, The Ring of Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 233.
37. 28 See David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 656-683; John M. Redding, Inside the Democratic Party (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958); Cornelius Cotter and Bernard C. Hennessy, Politics Without Power (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 126; Ken Hechler, Working With Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam's, 1982); and Donald Dawson in Francis Heller, ed., The Truman White House (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 50.
38. 28 See David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 656-683; John M. Redding, Inside the Democratic Party (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958); Cornelius Cotter and Bernard C. Hennessy, Politics Without Power (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 126; Ken Hechler, Working With Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam's, 1982); and Donald Dawson in Francis Heller, ed., The Truman White House (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 50.
39. 28 See David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 656-683; John M. Redding, Inside the Democratic Party (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958); Cornelius Cotter and Bernard C. Hennessy, Politics Without Power (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 126; Ken Hechler, Working With Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam's, 1982); and Donald Dawson in Francis Heller, ed., The Truman White House (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 50.
40. 28 See David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 656-683; John M. Redding, Inside the Democratic Party (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958); Cornelius Cotter and Bernard C. Hennessy, Politics Without Power (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 126; Ken Hechler, Working With Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam's, 1982); and Donald Dawson in Francis Heller, ed., The Truman White House (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 50.
41. 28 See David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 656-683; John M. Redding, Inside the Democratic Party (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958); Cornelius Cotter and Bernard C. Hennessy, Politics Without Power (New York: Atherton Press, 1964), 126; Ken Hechler, Working With Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam's, 1982); and Donald Dawson in Francis Heller, ed., The Truman White House (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 50.
42. 29 Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Power, 126. Previously, Len Hall was a member of Congress who served a stint at the RNC as chair of the National Republican Congressional Committee. In 1953, Hall became chair of the RNC on the heels of a scandal involving the previous chair. See Charles A. H. Thompson and Frances M. Shattuck, The 1956 Presidential Campaign (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1960), 7; Hugh Alvin Bone, Party Committees and National Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1958), 61.
43. 29 Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Power, 126. Previously, Len Hall was a member of Congress who served a stint at the RNC as chair of the National Republican Congressional Committee. In 1953, Hall became chair of the RNC on the heels of a scandal involving the previous chair. See Charles A. H. Thompson and Frances M. Shattuck, The 1956 Presidential Campaign (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1960), 7; Hugh Alvin Bone, Party Committees and National Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1958), 61.
44. 29 Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Power, 126. Previously, Len Hall was a member of Congress who served a stint at the RNC as chair of the National Republican Congressional Committee. In 1953, Hall became chair of the RNC on the heels of a scandal involving the previous chair. See Charles A. H. Thompson and Frances M. Shattuck, The 1956 Presidential Campaign (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1960), 7; Hugh Alvin Bone, Party Committees and National Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1958), 61.
45. 30 Thompson and Shattuck, 1956 Presidential Campaign, 13-14.
46. 31 See Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report (New York: Harper, 1961), 233-34; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 324; and Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Eisenhower's ambivalence about a second term, prompted in part by his health scares in 1955 and 1956, also contributed to staff stability. Dramatic changes to Ike's advisory organization in the midst of his illness might have created the perception of disarray in the White House and thus adversely affected his electoral prospects.
47. 31 See Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report (New York: Harper, 1961), 233-34; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 324; and Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Eisenhower's ambivalence about a second term, prompted in part by his health scares in 1955 and 1956, also contributed to staff stability. Dramatic changes to Ike's advisory organization in the midst of his illness might have created the perception of disarray in the White House and thus adversely affected his electoral prospects.
48. 31 See Sherman Adams, Firsthand Report (New York: Harper, 1961), 233-34; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 324; and Herbert S. Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades (New York: Macmillan, 1972). Eisenhower's ambivalence about a second term, prompted in part by his health scares in 1955 and 1956, also contributed to staff stability. Dramatic changes to Ike's advisory organization in the midst of his illness might have created the perception of disarray in the White House and thus adversely affected his electoral prospects.
49. 32 See Theodore White, The Making of the President 1964 (New York: Atheneum, 1965), 258-262, 350-351; Harold Faber, The Road to the White House: The Story of the 1964 Election (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 152; and Karl Lamb and Paul Smith, Campaign Decision-making: The Presidential Election of 1964 (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1968).
50. 32 See Theodore White, The Making of the President 1964 (New York: Atheneum, 1965), 258-262, 350-351; Harold Faber, The Road to the White House: The Story of the 1964 Election (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 152; and Karl Lamb and Paul Smith, Campaign Decision-making: The Presidential Election of 1964 (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1968).
51. 32 See Theodore White, The Making of the President 1964 (New York: Atheneum, 1965), 258-262, 350-351; Harold Faber, The Road to the White House: The Story of the 1964 Election (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), 152; and Karl Lamb and Paul Smith, Campaign Decision-making: The Presidential Election of 1964 (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1968).
52. 33 Emmette S. Redford and Richard T. McCulley, White House Operations, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 31.
53. 34 A. James Reichley, The Life of the Parties (New York: Free Press, 1992), 337; see also Sidney Milkis, The President and the Parties (New York: Oxford, 1993), 179-183.
54. 34 A. James Reichley, The Life of the Parties (New York: Free Press, 1992), 337; see also Sidney Milkis, The President and the Parties (New York: Oxford, 1993), 179-183.
55. 35 Milkis, President and Parties, 364.
56. 36 For details see Larry Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 285-286; and Congressional Quarterly Weekly Reports, 8 July 1972, 1667.
57. 36 For details see Larry Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 285-286; and Congressional Quarterly Weekly Reports, 8 July 1972, 1667.
58. 37 Ernest R. May and Janet Fraser, eds., Campaign '72 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 214-215; see also Jeb Magruder, An American Life (New York: Atheneum. 1974), 155.
59. 37 Ernest R. May and Janet Fraser, eds., Campaign '72 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 214-215; see also Jeb Magruder, An American Life (New York: Atheneum. 1974), 155.
60. 38 U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary, White House Staff and President Nixon's Campaign Organizations (June 1974), 5; see also Congressional Quarterly, "Nixon Campaign: Mounting a Drive for Another Term," 27 November 1971, 2452-55.
61. 38 U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary, White House Staff and President Nixon's Campaign Organizations (June 1974), 5; see also Congressional Quarterly, "Nixon Campaign: Mounting a Drive for Another Term," 27 November 1971, 2452-55.
62. 39 Jeb Magruder in May and Fraser, Campaign '72, 88.
63. 40 ITT had contributed $400,000 to Nixon's campaign and was accused of receiving special treatment from Mitchell while he headed the Justice Department. See Magruder, American Life, 197; and Theodore White, The Making of the President 1972 (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1973), 441.
64. 40 ITT had contributed $400,000 to Nixon's campaign and was accused of receiving special treatment from Mitchell while he headed the Justice Department. See Magruder, American Life, 197; and Theodore White, The Making of the President 1972 (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1973), 441.
65. 41 House Committee on the Judiciary Report, 6.
66. 42 Colson served as Nixon's attack dog, responsible for much of the negative campaigning on behalf of Nixon. Other purveyors of dirty tricks, although not officially part of the White House staff, nevertheless reported directly to Haldeman and to Dwight Chapin, the president's appointment secretary.
67. 43 Robert Hartmann, Palace Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 370.
68. 44 Kissinger held two positions at the time: national security adviser and Secretary of State. He remained in the latter post.
69. 45 See Ron Nessen, It Sure Looks Different From the Inside (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978), 327; John J. Casserly, The Ford White House (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977); David Howell, Margaret-Mary Howell, and Robert Kronman. Gentlemanly Attitudes: Jerry Ford and the Campaign of '76 (Washington: HKJV Publications, 1980), 255-288.
70. 45 See Ron Nessen, It Sure Looks Different From the Inside (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978), 327; John J. Casserly, The Ford White House (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977); David Howell, Margaret-Mary Howell, and Robert Kronman. Gentlemanly Attitudes: Jerry Ford and the Campaign of '76 (Washington: HKJV Publications, 1980), 255-288.
71. 45 See Ron Nessen, It Sure Looks Different From the Inside (Chicago: Playboy Press, 1978), 327; John J. Casserly, The Ford White House (Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977); David Howell, Margaret-Mary Howell, and Robert Kronman. Gentlemanly Attitudes: Jerry Ford and the Campaign of '76 (Washington: HKJV Publications, 1980), 255-288.
72. 46 Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 320; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 378; Walter Issaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 669-694.
73. 46 Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 320; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 378; Walter Issaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 669-694.
74. 46 Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 320; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 378; Walter Issaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 669-694.
75. 47 Martin Schram, Running for President, 1976 (New York: Stein and Day, 1977), 259.
76. 48 Howard Callaway and then C. Rogers Morton preceded Baker as campaign chair. For details, see Nessen, It Sure Looks Different, 212, 245-253; Malcolm MacDougall, We Almost Made It (New York: Crown, 1977), 5; Howell et al., Gentlemanly Attitudes, 154-55, 263-264.
77. 48 Howard Callaway and then C. Rogers Morton preceded Baker as campaign chair. For details, see Nessen, It Sure Looks Different, 212, 245-253; Malcolm MacDougall, We Almost Made It (New York: Crown, 1977), 5; Howell et al., Gentlemanly Attitudes, 154-55, 263-264.
78. 48 Howard Callaway and then C. Rogers Morton preceded Baker as campaign chair. For details, see Nessen, It Sure Looks Different, 212, 245-253; Malcolm MacDougall, We Almost Made It (New York: Crown, 1977), 5; Howell et al., Gentlemanly Attitudes, 154-55, 263-264.
79. 49 Nessen, It Sure Looks Different, 249; John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (Washington, DC: New Republic Book Co., 1977), 401.
80. 49 Nessen, It Sure Looks Different, 249; John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (Washington, DC: New Republic Book Co., 1977), 401.
81. 50 See Jonathan Moore and Janet Fraser, eds., Campaign for President: The Managers Look at '76 (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1977).
82. 51 Joseph Califano, Governing America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 430; see also National Journal, "At the White House, You Can't Tell the Players without a Scorecard," 6 October 1979, 1641. Although Carter's pollster, Pat Caddell, argues that the staff shuffle "had little to do with specific electoral politics." See Jonathan Moore, ed., The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1981), 21. But compare to Jack Walsh in Richard Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980 (New York: Berkeley Books, 1980), 249; and Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 300.
83. 51 Joseph Califano, Governing America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 430; see also National Journal, "At the White House, You Can't Tell the Players without a Scorecard," 6 October 1979, 1641. Although Carter's pollster, Pat Caddell, argues that the staff shuffle "had little to do with specific electoral politics." See Jonathan Moore, ed., The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1981), 21. But compare to Jack Walsh in Richard Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980 (New York: Berkeley Books, 1980), 249; and Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 300.
84. 51 Joseph Califano, Governing America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 430; see also National Journal, "At the White House, You Can't Tell the Players without a Scorecard," 6 October 1979, 1641. Although Carter's pollster, Pat Caddell, argues that the staff shuffle "had little to do with specific electoral politics." See Jonathan Moore, ed., The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1981), 21. But compare to Jack Walsh in Richard Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980 (New York: Berkeley Books, 1980), 249; and Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 300.
85. 51 Joseph Califano, Governing America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 430; see also National Journal, "At the White House, You Can't Tell the Players without a Scorecard," 6 October 1979, 1641. Although Carter's pollster, Pat Caddell, argues that the staff shuffle "had little to do with specific electoral politics." See Jonathan Moore, ed., The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1981), 21. But compare to Jack Walsh in Richard Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980 (New York: Berkeley Books, 1980), 249; and Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 300.
86. 51 Joseph Califano, Governing America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 430; see also National Journal, "At the White House, You Can't Tell the Players without a Scorecard," 6 October 1979, 1641. Although Carter's pollster, Pat Caddell, argues that the staff shuffle "had little to do with specific electoral politics." See Jonathan Moore, ed., The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1981), 21. But compare to Jack Walsh in Richard Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980 (New York: Berkeley Books, 1980), 249; and Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 300.
87. 52 The five were Treasury Secretary W. Michael Blumenthal; Energy Secretary James R. Schlesinger; Health, Education and Welfare Secretary Joseph A. Califano, Jr.; Transportation Secretary Brock Adams; and Attorney General Griffin B. Bell. In addition, Patricia Roberts Harris switched from Housing and Urban Development to Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare. See National Journal, "Carter Turns on the Drama-But Can He Lead?" 28 July 1979, 1237.
88. 53 Schlesinger was perceived to be a "political liability because of long gas lines and an approaching reelection campaign." See ibid., 1241. More generally, "[i]n rearranging his Cabinet, the President managed to satisfy the corporate community, Jews, Catholics, blacks, women, Italians and the big cities." (National Journal, 10 November 1979, 1897).
89. 53 Schlesinger was perceived to be a "political liability because of long gas lines and an approaching reelection campaign." See ibid., 1241. More generally, "[i]n rearranging his Cabinet, the President managed to satisfy the corporate community, Jews, Catholics, blacks, women, Italians and the big cities." (National Journal, 10 November 1979, 1897).
90. 54 See National Journal, "Carter Turns on the Drama," 1237.
91. 55 Ibid., 1238; Martin Schram, "Carter" in Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980, 91.
92. 55 Ibid., 1238; Martin Schram, "Carter" in Harwood, ed., In Pursuit of the Presidency 1980, 91.
93. 56 Schram, "Carter," 86.
94. 57 For details see Hamilton Jordan, Crisis (New York: Putnam, 1982).
95. 58 Quoted in Schram, "Carter," 91; see also Drew, Portrait of an Election.
96. 58 Quoted in Schram, "Carter," 91; see also Drew, Portrait of an Election.
97. 59 Moore, The Campaign for President: 1980 In Retrospect, 180-82.
98. 60 Ibid., 60.
99. 61 Peter Goldman and Tony Fuller, The Quest for the Presidency 1984 (New York: Bantam, 1985), 39.
100. 62 Ed Rollins in Jonathan Moore, ed., Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984 (Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company, 1986), 104; see also Jack Germond and Jules Witcover, Wake Us When It's Over (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 331; and Patterson, Ring of Power, 238.
101. 62 Ed Rollins in Jonathan Moore, ed., Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984 (Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company, 1986), 104; see also Jack Germond and Jules Witcover, Wake Us When It's Over (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 331; and Patterson, Ring of Power, 238.
102. 62 Ed Rollins in Jonathan Moore, ed., Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984 (Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company, 1986), 104; see also Jack Germond and Jules Witcover, Wake Us When It's Over (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 331; and Patterson, Ring of Power, 238.
103. 63 Moore, Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984, 100. Note also that this exodus is reflected in successive editions of the United States Government Manual; the Office of Political Affairs is listed in the 1982-1983 volume, but deleted in the following edition. Thereafter it is listed again.
104. 64 Moore, Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984, 106; Goldman and Fuller, Quest for Presidency, 262.
105. 64 Moore, Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984, 106; Goldman and Fuller, Quest for Presidency, 262.
106. 65 Germond and Witcover, Wake Us When, 331. Indeed, to forestall appearances that government resources were being used for political purposes, Baker ordered that official White House cars not discharge passengers at Reagan campaign headquarters. (See Patterson, Ring of Power, 238.)
107. 65 Germond and Witcover, Wake Us When, 331. Indeed, to forestall appearances that government resources were being used for political purposes, Baker ordered that official White House cars not discharge passengers at Reagan campaign headquarters. (See Patterson, Ring of Power, 238.)
108. 66 Moore, Campaign for President: The Managers Look at 1984, 37-38.
109. 67 Richard Neustadt, Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents (New York: Free Press, 1990).
110. 68 See Barbara Kellerman, The Political Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); George Edwards, At the Margins (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
111. 68 See Barbara Kellerman, The Political Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); George Edwards, At the Margins (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
112. 68 See Barbara Kellerman, The Political Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); George Edwards, At the Margins (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
113. 69 John Aldrich and Thomas Weko, "The Presidency and the Election Campaign" in Michael Nelson, ed., The Presidency and the Political System, 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1992), 279.
114. 70 Typically, advisers' expertise pertains to one of five critical bargaining arenas: voter mobilization, campaign operations, policy research, public relations, or finance. Compare to Bone, Party Committees, 58-68; and John Kessel, Presidential Campaign Politics, 2nd ed. (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1984), 105-106.
115. 70 Typically, advisers' expertise pertains to one of five critical bargaining arenas: voter mobilization, campaign operations, policy research, public relations, or finance. Compare to Bone, Party Committees, 58-68; and John Kessel, Presidential Campaign Politics, 2nd ed. (Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1984), 105-106.
116. 71 Compare to Paul Light, The President's Agenda (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 25-33.
117. 72 See Bone, Party Committees, 116-123.
118. 73 See Edward McChesney Sait, American Parties and Elections (New York: The Century Company, 1927); Bone, Party Committees; and Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Party. For a first-hand glimpse of the traditional party campaign structure in action, read James Farley's memoir, Behind the Ballots (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), which describes his role as FDR's primary campaign manager in 1932 and 1936. Farley simultan eously chaired the DNC and served as FDR's postmaster-general, dispensing patronage on the president's behalf.
119. 73 See Edward McChesney Sait, American Parties and Elections (New York: The Century Company, 1927); Bone, Party Committees; and Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Party. For a first-hand glimpse of the traditional party campaign structure in action, read James Farley's memoir, Behind the Ballots (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), which describes his role as FDR's primary campaign manager in 1932 and 1936. Farley simultan eously chaired the DNC and served as FDR's postmaster-general, dispensing patronage on the president's behalf.
120. 73 See Edward McChesney Sait, American Parties and Elections (New York: The Century Company, 1927); Bone, Party Committees; and Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Party. For a first-hand glimpse of the traditional party campaign structure in action, read James Farley's memoir, Behind the Ballots (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), which describes his role as FDR's primary campaign manager in 1932 and 1936. Farley simultan eously chaired the DNC and served as FDR's postmaster-general, dispensing patronage on the president's behalf.
121. 73 See Edward McChesney Sait, American Parties and Elections (New York: The Century Company, 1927); Bone, Party Committees; and Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Party. For a first-hand glimpse of the traditional party campaign structure in action, read James Farley's memoir, Behind the Ballots (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), which describes his role as FDR's primary campaign manager in 1932 and 1936. Farley simultan eously chaired the DNC and served as FDR's postmaster-general, dispensing patronage on the president's behalf.
122. 74 See Cotter and Hennessy, Politics Without Power.
123. 75 See Executive Order 8248 and Reorganization Plan I of 1939.
124. 76 See Terry Moe, "The Politicized Presidency" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The New Direction in American Politics (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1985); Hart, Presidential Branch; and Samuel Kernell, "The Evolution of the White House Staff" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., Can the Government Govern? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1989).
125. 76 See Terry Moe, "The Politicized Presidency" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The New Direction in American Politics (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1985); Hart, Presidential Branch; and Samuel Kernell, "The Evolution of the White House Staff" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., Can the Government Govern? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1989).
126. 76 See Terry Moe, "The Politicized Presidency" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The New Direction in American Politics (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1985); Hart, Presidential Branch; and Samuel Kernell, "The Evolution of the White House Staff" in John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson, eds., Can the Government Govern? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1989).
127. 77 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Gary Jacobson, "The Republican Advantage in Campaign Finance" in Chubb and Peterson, The New Direction in American Politics; Leon Epstein, Political Parties in the American Mold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); and David Magleby and Candice Nelson, The Money Chase (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1990).
128. 77 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Gary Jacobson, "The Republican Advantage in Campaign Finance" in Chubb and Peterson, The New Direction in American Politics; Leon Epstein, Political Parties in the American Mold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); and David Magleby and Candice Nelson, The Money Chase (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1990).
129. 77 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Gary Jacobson, "The Republican Advantage in Campaign Finance" in Chubb and Peterson, The New Direction in American Politics; Leon Epstein, Political Parties in the American Mold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); and David Magleby and Candice Nelson, The Money Chase (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1990).
130. 77 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Gary Jacobson, "The Republican Advantage in Campaign Finance" in Chubb and Peterson, The New Direction in American Politics; Leon Epstein, Political Parties in the American Mold (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986); and David Magleby and Candice Nelson, The Money Chase (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1990).
131. 78 See James Ceaser, Presidential Selection: Theory and Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); and Paul Herrnson, Party Campaigning in the 1980s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
132. 78 See James Ceaser, Presidential Selection: Theory and Development (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979); and Paul Herrnson, Party Campaigning in the 1980s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
133. 79 See Larry Sabato, Feeding Frenzy (New York: Free Press, 1991); and Thomas Patterson, Out of Order (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993).
134. 79 See Larry Sabato, Feeding Frenzy (New York: Free Press, 1991); and Thomas Patterson, Out of Order (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993).
135. 80 See Mark Peterson and Jack Walker, "The Presidency and the Nominating System" in Nelson, The Presidency and the Political System.
136. 81 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants, esp. 263-284; Epstein, Political Parties; Herrnson, Party Campaigns, 43; and Martin P. Wattenberg, The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
137. 81 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants, esp. 263-284; Epstein, Political Parties; Herrnson, Party Campaigns, 43; and Martin P. Wattenberg, The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
138. 81 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants, esp. 263-284; Epstein, Political Parties; Herrnson, Party Campaigns, 43; and Martin P. Wattenberg, The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
139. 81 See Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants, esp. 263-284; Epstein, Political Parties; Herrnson, Party Campaigns, 43; and Martin P. Wattenberg, The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
140. 82 See Austin Ranney, "The Political Parties: Reform and Decline" in Anthony King, ed., The New American Political System (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1978), 245; Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform; Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (Robert B. Hawkins, chair). The Transformation in American Politics: Implications for Federalism (Washington, DC: ACIR, August 1986).
141. 82 See Austin Ranney, "The Political Parties: Reform and Decline" in Anthony King, ed., The New American Political System (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1978), 245; Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform; Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (Robert B. Hawkins, chair). The Transformation in American Politics: Implications for Federalism (Washington, DC: ACIR, August 1986).
142. 82 See Austin Ranney, "The Political Parties: Reform and Decline" in Anthony King, ed., The New American Political System (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1978), 245; Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform; Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (Robert B. Hawkins, chair). The Transformation in American Politics: Implications for Federalism (Washington, DC: ACIR, August 1986).
143. 82 See Austin Ranney, "The Political Parties: Reform and Decline" in Anthony King, ed., The New American Political System (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1978), 245; Sabato, Rise of Political Consultants; Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform; Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (Robert B. Hawkins, chair). The Transformation in American Politics: Implications for Federalism (Washington, DC: ACIR, August 1986).
144. 83 Pfiffner, Strategic Presidency, 21.
145. 84 See Richard Neustadt and Charles O. Jones, The Presidency in a Separated System (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1994).
146. 85 James Ceaser, Reforming the Reforms (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1982), 110.
147. 86 Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform, 150-151.
148. 87 Hart, Presidential Branch, 129.
149. 88 These campaign characteristics are vividly illustrated in the film The War Room, which chronicles the activities of perhaps the two key members of Clinton's 1992 campaign staff: James Carville and George Stephanopoulos. Both were instrumental in engineering Clinton's victory. Stephanopoulos, however, found the transition to governing difficult; after five months he was "promoted" to a less visible White House staff post. Although Carville continued to advise the president, he never took a formal position with the Clinton White House.
150. 89 See Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency: James Pfiffner, "The Clinton Transition," Working Paper 95:4, The Institute of Public Policy, George Mason University, 1995; and Carl M. Brauer, Presidential Transitions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
151. 89 See Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency: James Pfiffner, "The Clinton Transition," Working Paper 95:4, The Institute of Public Policy, George Mason University, 1995; and Carl M. Brauer, Presidential Transitions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
152. 89 See Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency: James Pfiffner, "The Clinton Transition," Working Paper 95:4, The Institute of Public Policy, George Mason University, 1995; and Carl M. Brauer, Presidential Transitions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
153. 90 If we follow Ceaser, Presidential Selection, 215, in dating the traditional party (or mixed) system from 1920 to 1968, only one incumbent president in this era - Herbert Hoover in 1932 - was denied reelection. Three - FDR, Truman and Eisenhower - were returned to office. Johnson, of course, won election in his own right in 1964, but then dropped out of the race four years later after a disappointing showing in the New Hampshire primary. In the postreform era, two incumbents - Nixon and Reagan -successfully ran for reelection, while Ford, Carter and Bush were all defeated.
154. 91 "Toward a More Responsible Two Party System," A Report of the Committee on Political Parties, The American Political Science Association (New York: Rinehart, 1950); see also Epstein, Political Parties, 9-39; and Reichley, Life of the Parties, 411-433.
155. 91 "Toward a More Responsible Two Party System," A Report of the Committee on Political Parties, The American Political Science Association (New York: Rinehart, 1950); see also Epstein, Political Parties, 9-39; and Reichley, Life of the Parties, 411-433.
156. 91 "Toward a More Responsible Two Party System," A Report of the Committee on Political Parties, The American Political Science Association (New York: Rinehart, 1950); see also Epstein, Political Parties, 9-39; and Reichley, Life of the Parties, 411-433.
157. 92 Indeed, our interviews suggest that this may have been the rationale behind Bush's appointment of Lee Atwater as RNC chair. As a former RNC chair himself, Bush sought a trusted and skilled strategist to revitalize that organization. Atwater's death, however, created a political void that Bush did not take the time to fill adequately. As a result, the RNC played a supportive role in the 1992 campaign. (Fitzwater interview, 19 May 1994; Frank Donatelli phone interview, 1 July 1994; and David Carney interview, 20 May 1994).