Moralizing science: The uses of science's past in national education in the 1920s

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 51-70

  Mayer, Anna Katherina ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EDUCATION; HISTORY; MORALITY; PUBLIC OPINION; SCIENCE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; UNITED KINGDOM;

EDUCATION; GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORIOGRAPHY; HISTORY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; MORALS; PUBLIC OPINION; SCIENCE; SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY;

EID: 0031089207     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087496002890     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Times Educational Supplement, 7 September 1916, 113.
2. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
3. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
4. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
5. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
6. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
7. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
8. For the neglect-of-science debate, see W. H. G. Armytage, Sir Richard Gregory, His Life and His Work, London, 1957; E. W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Twentieth Century Science Education in England and Wales, London, 1979; Frank M. Turner, 'Public science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis (1980), 71, 589-608; David Layton, 'Education in industrialized societies', in A History of Technology, 8 vols. (ed. C. Singer et al.), Vol. 6. The Twentieth Century (ed. T. I. Williams), Oxford, 1978, 138-71; and Layton, Interpreters of Science. A History of the Association of Science Education, London, 1984, 193-8; Joseph Lester and Peter Bowler, E. Ray Lankester and the Making of Modern British Biology, Stanford in the Vale, 1995, especially ch. 14, 'The place of science in society, and the struggle for a rational system of education', 161-70.
9. Resolutions of a meeting between the Councils of the Classical, English, Geographical, Historical, and Modern Languages Associations, as reported in The Times, 5 September 1916, 11.
10. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
11. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
12. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
13. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
14. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
15. W. H. Brock, H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Science, 1880-1930, Cambridge, 1973; W. J. M. S. Sherratt, ' History of Science in Education: An Investigation into the Role and Use of Historical Ideas and Material in Education with Particular Reference to Science Education in the English Secondary School since the 19th Century', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 1980; Mary Waring, Social Pressures and Curriculum Innovation: A Study of the Nuffield Foundation Science Teaching Project, London, 1979; D. Layton, 'The schooling of science in England', in The Parliament of Science: The BAAS 1831-1981 (ed. Roy Macleod and Peter Collins), Northwood, 1981, 188-210, and Interpreters, op. cit. (2); Jenkins, op. cit. (2).
16. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, London 1917, 127.
17. Report of the Committee Appointed by the Prime Minister to enquire into the Position of Natural Science in the Education System of Great Britain, London, 1918. The appointment specified that the committee was to 'advise what measures are needed to promote [science's] study, regard being had to the requirements of a liberal education'. See announcement in Times Educational Supplement, 7 September 1916, 122.
18. Report of the Committee Appointed by the Prime Minister to enquire into the Position of Natural Science in the Education System of Great Britain, London, 1918. The appointment specified that the committee was to 'advise what measures are needed to promote [science's] study, regard being had to the requirements of a liberal education'. See announcement in Times Educational Supplement, 7 September 1916, 122.
19. Jenkins, op. cit. (2), and Peter Collins, 'The BAAS and Public Attitudes to Science 1919-1945', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds, 1978, 282-358.
20. Jenkins, op. cit. (2), and Peter Collins, 'The BAAS and Public Attitudes to Science 1919-1945', Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds, 1978, 282-358.
21. As part of the thorough reconstruction of the system of national education, the 1902 Act put the former voluntary (i.e. church) schools on the rates and thus installed the 'dual system'. It was so controversial that it required a guillotine procedure to get it through the House of Commons, and engendered mass meetings and demonstrations throughout the country. See M. Cruickshank, 'Defence of the 1902 Act', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 2-7; Brian Simon, 'The 1902 Act - a wrong turning', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 7-14; and M. Cruickshank, Church and State in English Education, London, 1963.
22. As part of the thorough reconstruction of the system of national education, the 1902 Act put the former voluntary (i.e. church) schools on the rates and thus installed the 'dual system'. It was so controversial that it required a guillotine procedure to get it through the House of Commons, and engendered mass meetings and demonstrations throughout the country. See M. Cruickshank, 'Defence of the 1902 Act', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 2-7; Brian Simon, 'The 1902 Act - a wrong turning', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 7-14; and M. Cruickshank, Church and State in English Education, London, 1963.
23. As part of the thorough reconstruction of the system of national education, the 1902 Act put the former voluntary (i.e. church) schools on the rates and thus installed the 'dual system'. It was so controversial that it required a guillotine procedure to get it through the House of Commons, and engendered mass meetings and demonstrations throughout the country. See M. Cruickshank, 'Defence of the 1902 Act', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 2-7; Brian Simon, 'The 1902 Act - a wrong turning', History of Education Society Bulletin (1977), 19, 7-14; and M. Cruickshank, Church and State in English Education, London, 1963.
24. Since I use the term 'humanistic' as in the distinction between 'scientific' and 'humanistic', I refrain from a detailed analysis of this second and very important connotation of the term.
25. Frank M. Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, Cambridge, 1993, and The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain, New Haven, CT, 1981; David Cantor, 'Arthur John Brock and Humanism in Early Twentieth Century British Medicine', paper delivered at a conference on Humanism, Citizenship and Science in the Interwar Years, Wellcome Institute, London, 16 February 1996.
26. Frank M. Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, Cambridge, 1993, and The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain, New Haven, CT, 1981; David Cantor, 'Arthur John Brock and Humanism in Early Twentieth Century British Medicine', paper delivered at a conference on Humanism, Citizenship and Science in the Interwar Years, Wellcome Institute, London, 16 February 1996.
27. Frank M. Turner, Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual Life, Cambridge, 1993, and The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain, New Haven, CT, 1981; David Cantor, 'Arthur John Brock and Humanism in Early Twentieth Century British Medicine', paper delivered at a conference on Humanism, Citizenship and Science in the Interwar Years, Wellcome Institute, London, 16 February 1996.
28. Charles Singer, introduction to D. M. Turner, Makers of Science, Electricity and Magnetism, Oxford and London, 1927, p. x.
29. The Liverpool educationist A. E. Heath also refers to a 'movement among those modern historians dissatisfied with the older over-stressing of the political aspects of history', see Heath, 'Science and education', in Science and Civilization (ed. F. S. Marvin), Oxford, 1923, 221-46, on 222. Notably, the historian and political theorist Ernest Barker, president of BAAS section L in 1924, proposed to the sectional committee that the place of the history of science in education would be a suitable topic for discussion at the 1926 Oxford meeting of the BAAS. See Collins, op. cit. (7), 256.
30. The Liverpool educationist A. E. Heath also refers to a 'movement among those modern historians dissatisfied with the older over-stressing of the political aspects of history', see Heath, 'Science and education', in Science and Civilization (ed. F. S. Marvin), Oxford, 1923, 221-46, on 222. Notably, the historian and political theorist Ernest Barker, president of BAAS section L in 1924, proposed to the sectional committee that the place of the history of science in education would be a suitable topic for discussion at the 1926 Oxford meeting of the BAAS. See Collins, op. cit. (7), 256.
31. Report of the British Association, op. cit. (5), 140. See also W. H. Brock, 'Past, present, and future', in Teaching the History of Science (ed. Michael Shortland and Andrew Warwick), Oxford, 1989, 30-41, on 31.
32. Report of the British Association, op. cit. (5), 140. See also W. H. Brock, 'Past, present, and future', in Teaching the History of Science (ed. Michael Shortland and Andrew Warwick), Oxford, 1989, 30-41, on 31.
33. Brock, op. cit. (13), 32.
34. Charles Singer (ed.), Studies in the History and Method of Science, 2 vols., Oxford, 1917-21, ii, preface, p. vii. This two-volume set was intended to be the first periodical for the history of science in Britain. See also Heath, op. cit. (12).
35. Charles Singer (ed.), Studies in the History and Method of Science, 2 vols., Oxford, 1917-21, ii, preface, p. vii. This two-volume set was intended to be the first periodical for the history of science in Britain. See also Heath, op. cit. (12).
36. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 81; A. Armitage, 'The teaching of the history of science in the University of London', Lychnos (1936), 1, 302-7; and W. A. Smeaton, 'History of science at University College London: 1919-47', BJHS (1997), 30, 25-8.
37. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 81; A. Armitage, 'The teaching of the history of science in the University of London', Lychnos (1936), 1, 302-7; and W. A. Smeaton, 'History of science at University College London: 1919-47', BJHS (1997), 30, 25-8.
38. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 81; A. Armitage, 'The teaching of the history of science in the University of London', Lychnos (1936), 1, 302-7; and W. A. Smeaton, 'History of science at University College London: 1919-47', BJHS (1997), 30, 25-8.
39. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 81-2. In the academic year 1930-31, thirty-eight students were registered for postgraduate work in the department, compared to thirty-four in 1935-36.
40. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 85.
41. For a thorough analysis of the educational doctrine of the period, see R. J. W. Selleck, The New Education 1870-1914, London, 1968.
42. Richard Livingstone, A Defence of Classical Education, London, 1916, 20.
43. T. Holland, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford 1926, 251-3.
44. Quoted by Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 74 (my italics).
45. T. Percy Nunn, 'Science', in The New Teaching (ed. John Adams), London, 1918, 154-98, on 159-60. See also Nunn's presidential address to BAAS section L in 1923, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 261-72; R. Gregory, Discovery, or the Spirit and Service of Science, London, 1916, p. v, and 'The message of science', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 488-98, especially 489.
46. T. Percy Nunn, 'Science', in The New Teaching (ed. John Adams), London, 1918, 154-98, on 159-60. See also Nunn's presidential address to BAAS section L in 1923, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 261-72; R. Gregory, Discovery, or the Spirit and Service of Science, London, 1916, p. v, and 'The message of science', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 488-98, especially 489.
47. T. Percy Nunn, 'Science', in The New Teaching (ed. John Adams), London, 1918, 154-98, on 159-60. See also Nunn's presidential address to BAAS section L in 1923, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 261-72; R. Gregory, Discovery, or the Spirit and Service of Science, London, 1916, p. v, and 'The message of science', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 488-98, especially 489.
48. T. Percy Nunn, 'Science', in The New Teaching (ed. John Adams), London, 1918, 154-98, on 159-60. See also Nunn's presidential address to BAAS section L in 1923, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 261-72; R. Gregory, Discovery, or the Spirit and Service of Science, London, 1916, p. v, and 'The message of science', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 488-98, especially 489.
49. D. M. Turner, History of Science Teaching, London, 1927, 191 (my italics). Dorothy Turner should not be confused with Singer's wife and collaborator, Dorothea Waley Singer, née Cohen.
50. Heath, op. cit. (12), 221.
51. A. Wolf, 'The teaching of the history of science in the University of London', Science Progress (1931), 26, 275-9, on 278-9.
52. Charles Singer, A Short History of Medicine. Introducing Medical Principles to Students and Non-Medical Readers, Oxford, 1928, p. vii. Singer was a pupil of Clifford Allbutt and William Osler, both of whom signed the earliest version of the neglect-of-science memorandum that opened the debate of the same name.
53. Charles Singer, 'The place of history of science in education', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford 1926, 420-1, and op. cit. (11), p. ix. See also E. J. Holmyard, 'The historical method in the teaching of chemistry', School Science Review (1923-24) 5, 227-33, on 231f. Holmyard would later become a co-editor of Annals of Science, the first professional journal for the history of science in Great Britain, established in 1936.
54. Charles Singer, 'The place of history of science in education', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford 1926, 420-1, and op. cit. (11), p. ix. See also E. J. Holmyard, 'The historical method in the teaching of chemistry', School Science Review (1923-24) 5, 227-33, on 231f. Holmyard would later become a co-editor of Annals of Science, the first professional journal for the history of science in Great Britain, established in 1936.
55. Charles Singer, 'The place of history of science in education', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford 1926, 420-1, and op. cit. (11), p. ix. See also E. J. Holmyard, 'The historical method in the teaching of chemistry', School Science Review (1923-24) 5, 227-33, on 231f. Holmyard would later become a co-editor of Annals of Science, the first professional journal for the history of science in Great Britain, established in 1936.
56. Charles Singer, 'The place of history of science in education', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Oxford 1926, 420-1, and op. cit. (11), p. ix. See also E. J. Holmyard, 'The historical method in the teaching of chemistry', School Science Review (1923-24) 5, 227-33, on 231f. Holmyard would later become a co-editor of Annals of Science, the first professional journal for the history of science in Great Britain, established in 1936.
57. Charles Singer, foreword to D. M. Turner, The Book of Scientific Discovery. How Science has Aided Human Welfare, London, 1933, 3-4. Similarly in his presidential address to the second International Congress for the History of Science and Technology, London, 1931. See 'The beginnings of science', Nature, 4 July 1931, 7-10, on 7.
58. Charles Singer, foreword to D. M. Turner, The Book of Scientific Discovery. How Science has Aided Human Welfare, London, 1933, 3-4. Similarly in his presidential address to the second International Congress for the History of Science and Technology, London, 1931. See 'The beginnings of science', Nature, 4 July 1931, 7-10, on 7.
59. Heath, op. cit. (12), 222-3.
60. Heath, op. cit. (12), 229-30, and 'The scope of the scientific method', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1918-19) 19, 179-207, especially 197, 204; T. Percy Nunn, The Aim and Achievements of Scientific Method: An Epistemological Essay, London, 1907, 46-62. Note that both Heath and Nunn conveyed their message to very different audiences - on the one hand, the academic community with access to the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, on the other hand the teachers whom Marvin had assembled for his summer schools at the Woodbrooke settlement.
61. Heath, op. cit. (12), 229-30, and 'The scope of the scientific method', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1918-19) 19, 179-207, especially 197, 204; T. Percy Nunn, The Aim and Achievements of Scientific Method: An Epistemological Essay, London, 1907, 46-62. Note that both Heath and Nunn conveyed their message to very different audiences - on the one hand, the academic community with access to the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, on the other hand the teachers whom Marvin had assembled for his summer schools at the Woodbrooke settlement.
62. Heath, op. cit. (12), 229-30, and 'The scope of the scientific method', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1918-19) 19, 179-207, especially 197, 204; T. Percy Nunn, The Aim and Achievements of Scientific Method: An Epistemological Essay, London, 1907, 46-62. Note that both Heath and Nunn conveyed their message to very different audiences - on the one hand, the academic community with access to the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, on the other hand the teachers whom Marvin had assembled for his summer schools at the Woodbrooke settlement.
63. Heath, op. cit. (12), 229-30, and 'The scope of the scientific method', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (1918-19) 19, 179-207, especially 197, 204; T. Percy Nunn, The Aim and Achievements of Scientific Method: An Epistemological Essay, London, 1907, 46-62. Note that both Heath and Nunn conveyed their message to very different audiences - on the one hand, the academic community with access to the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, on the other hand the teachers whom Marvin had assembled for his summer schools at the Woodbrooke settlement.
64. Times Educational Supplement, 16 November 1916, 209.
65. Times Educational Supplement, 30 November 1916, 225.
66. Times Educational Supplement, 6 January 1917, 10.
67. Times Educational Supplement, 4 April 1916, 49. See also Frank M. Turner, 'The triumph of idealism in classical studies', in Turner, Cultural Authority, op. cit. (10), 322-61, 352. Note that by 1918, Gardner attempted a reconciliation between Christian principles and modern science. See P. Gardner, Evolution in Christian Doctrine, London, 1918, and Evolution in Christian Ethics, London, 1918.
68. Times Educational Supplement, 4 April 1916, 49. See also Frank M. Turner, 'The triumph of idealism in classical studies', in Turner, Cultural Authority, op. cit. (10), 322-61, 352. Note that by 1918, Gardner attempted a reconciliation between Christian principles and modern science. See P. Gardner, Evolution in Christian Doctrine, London, 1918, and Evolution in Christian Ethics, London, 1918.
69. Times Educational Supplement, 4 April 1916, 49. See also Frank M. Turner, 'The triumph of idealism in classical studies', in Turner, Cultural Authority, op. cit. (10), 322-61, 352. Note that by 1918, Gardner attempted a reconciliation between Christian principles and modern science. See P. Gardner, Evolution in Christian Doctrine, London, 1918, and Evolution in Christian Ethics, London, 1918.
70. Times Educational Supplement, 4 April 1916, 49. See also Frank M. Turner, 'The triumph of idealism in classical studies', in Turner, Cultural Authority, op. cit. (10), 322-61, 352. Note that by 1918, Gardner attempted a reconciliation between Christian principles and modern science. See P. Gardner, Evolution in Christian Doctrine, London, 1918, and Evolution in Christian Ethics, London, 1918.
71. E. A. Burroughs, The Latin Culture, London, 1920, 8, 68.
72. E. A. Burroughs, Education and Religion. A Course of Lectures Given in Bristol Cathedral, London, 1924.
73. Michael Sadler, 'The philosophy of education', in Biology in Education. A Handbook Based on the Proceedings of the National Conference on the Place of Biology in Education, Organised by the British Social Hygiene Council (ed. J. G. Crowther), London, 1933, 27-30, on 29 (my italics).
74. Burroughs, op. cit. (37), 75-92.
75. Summary of Temple's address, Times Educational Supplement, 7 September 1917, 113.
76. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 72-3; Holmyard, op. cit. (28), on 233.
77. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 72-3; Holmyard, op. cit. (28), on 233.
78. Heath, op. cit. (12), especially on 221, 224f.
79. Singer, op. cit. (15), p. xi.
80. Charles Singer, 'Ancient medicine', in Marvin, op. cit. (12), 43-71, on 70.
81. Charles Singer, 'The Dark Ages and the dawn', in Marvin, op. cit. (12), 112-60, on 113-14.
82. Heath, too, called the Middle Ages degenerate and even regressive. His explanation differed slightly from Singer's: the Middle Ages had lost in objectivity, because they failed to pay attention to the observational and experimental aspect of 'the scientific method'; Heath, op. cit. (12), 231ff.
83. Three years on, and in a less popularist ambience, Singer rephrased his account of the supposed decay of observation: ''In origin it had nothing to do with Christianity, which was not yet in a position to have its full effect on pagan thought'. Still, Christianity 'brought a "cause"', and 'it was natural under these circumstances that Christian thought should oppose the philosophical basis of pagan thought', and 'in this sense early Christian thought was certainly anti-scientific', see Charles Singer, 'Historical relations of science and religion', in Science, Religion and Reality (ed. J. Needham), London, 1925, 85-148. Singer not only included 'The Dark Ages' in his important collection From Magic to Science. Essays on the Scientific Twilight, London, 1928, but also considered it the 'key to the volume'.
84. Three years on, and in a less popularist ambience, Singer rephrased his account of the supposed decay of observation: ''In origin it had nothing to do with Christianity, which was not yet in a position to have its full effect on pagan thought'. Still, Christianity 'brought a "cause"', and 'it was natural under these circumstances that Christian thought should oppose the philosophical basis of pagan thought', and 'in this sense early Christian thought was certainly anti-scientific', see Charles Singer, 'Historical relations of science and religion', in Science, Religion and Reality (ed. J. Needham), London, 1925, 85-148. Singer not only included 'The Dark Ages' in his important collection From Magic to Science. Essays on the Scientific Twilight, London, 1928, but also considered it the 'key to the volume'.
85. Turner, op. cit. (24), 191-2.
86. Note that the historical method of teaching science created in the aftermath of the First World War fed into a rhetoric that came into prominence on the eve of the cold war, when British aversions to the centralist and the prescriptive (and the crassly utilitarian) began to find expression in an ideologization of, of all things, science -that is, in a conception of science as an embodiment of individualistic moral, intellectual and political values. See A. D. Lindsay, Religion, Science and Society in the Modern World, Terry Lectures, London, 1943, 18; W. Bragg, Science and Faith, London, 1941; M. Polanyi, Science, Faith and Society, London, 1946.
87. Note that the historical method of teaching science created in the aftermath of the First World War fed into a rhetoric that came into prominence on the eve of the cold war, when British aversions to the centralist and the prescriptive (and the crassly utilitarian) began to find expression in an ideologization of, of all things, science - that is, in a conception of science as an embodiment of individualistic moral, intellectual and political values. See A. D. Lindsay, Religion, Science and Society in the Modern World, Terry Lectures, London, 1943, 18; W. Bragg, Science and Faith, London, 1941; M. Polanyi, Science, Faith and Society, London, 1946.
88. Note that the historical method of teaching science created in the aftermath of the First World War fed into a rhetoric that came into prominence on the eve of the cold war, when British aversions to the centralist and the prescriptive (and the crassly utilitarian) began to find expression in an ideologization of, of all things, science - that is, in a conception of science as an embodiment of individualistic moral, intellectual and political values. See A. D. Lindsay, Religion, Science and Society in the Modern World, Terry Lectures, London, 1943, 18; W. Bragg, Science and Faith, London, 1941; M. Polanyi, Science, Faith and Society, London, 1946.
89. Singer, op. cit. (28), op. cit. (11), pp. ix-x, and op. cit (29), 3.
90. Singer, op. cit. (28), op. cit. (11), pp. ix-x, and op. cit (29), 3.
91. Singer, op. cit. (28), op. cit. (11), pp. ix-x, and op. cit (29), 3.
92. Jenkins, op. cit. (2); and Brock, op. cit. (4).
93. Jenkins, op. cit. (2); and Brock, op. cit. (4).
94. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 62-3; also T. Percy Nunn, Education: Its Data and First Principles, London, 1920, ch. 4, 'The living past', 33-41, on 39ff.
95. Sherratt, op. cit. (4), 62-3; also T. Percy Nunn, Education: Its Data and First Principles, London, 1920, ch. 4, 'The living past', 33-41, on 39ff.
96. In contrast to Hayward, who worked for the London County Council, Marvin and his wife were employed in His Majesty's Inspectorate. For the difference in status see Ian MacKillop, 'Women in Love, class war and school inspectors', in D. H. Lawrence. New Studies (ed. Christopher Heywood), London, 1987, 46-58.
97. F. H. Hayward, A Story of Educational Failure. Addressed, Dedicated and Presented to the Education Committee of the London County Council, Oxford, 1937, supplies an account of his aims and disappointments.
98. On the Moral Instruction League and the eugenics movement, see Pauline Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, Its Sources and Its Critics in Britain, London and New York, 1992. On the League as a phase in the ethical movement of the late nineteenth century, see Ian MacKillop, The British Ethical Societies, Cambridge, 1986.
99. On the Moral Instruction League and the eugenics movement, see Pauline Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, Its Sources and Its Critics in Britain, London and New York, 1992. On the League as a phase in the ethical movement of the late nineteenth century, see Ian MacKillop, The British Ethical Societies, Cambridge, 1986.
100. Educationists who took Hayward seriously included Nunn, op. cit. (52); Frank Watts, HMI, Abnormal Psychology and Education, 2nd edn, London, 1924; Valentine Davis, The Matter and Method of Modern Teaching, Manchester, 1928; A. G. Hughes, Learning and Teaching, London, 1937.
101. Educationists who took Hayward seriously included Nunn, op. cit. (52); Frank Watts, HMI, Abnormal Psychology and Education, 2nd edn, London, 1924; Valentine Davis, The Matter and Method of Modern Teaching, Manchester, 1928; A. G. Hughes, Learning and Teaching, London, 1937.
102. Educationists who took Hayward seriously included Nunn, op. cit. (52); Frank Watts, HMI, Abnormal Psychology and Education, 2nd edn, London, 1924; Valentine Davis, The Matter and Method of Modern Teaching, Manchester, 1928; A. G. Hughes, Learning and Teaching, London, 1937.
103. Educationists who took Hayward seriously included Nunn, op. cit. (52); Frank Watts, HMI, Abnormal Psychology and Education, 2nd edn, London, 1924; Valentine Davis, The Matter and Method of Modern Teaching, Manchester, 1928; A. G. Hughes, Learning and Teaching, London, 1937.
104. F. H. Hayward, The Religious Difficulty in Schools; a Solution of an 'Insoluble' Problem, London, 1917; and F. H. Hayward and A. Freeman, The Spiritual Foundations of Reconstruction, London, 1919. Note that the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Southwark limited themselves to fairly tepid professions of interest.
105. F. H. Hayward, The Religious Difficulty in Schools; a Solution of an 'Insoluble' Problem, London, 1917; and F. H. Hayward and A. Freeman, The Spiritual Foundations of Reconstruction, London, 1919. Note that the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Southwark limited themselves to fairly tepid professions of interest.
106. Hayward and Freeman, op. cit. (57), 11, 13.
107. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
108. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
109. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
110. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
111. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
112. F. H. Hayward, A first Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A Second Book of School Celebrations, London, 1920; A New Book of Celebrations, London, 1927; and A Fourth Book of Celebrations, London, 1932. Hayward even prepared a special edition of his Bulletin for the 1931 London Congress for the History of Science and Technology: Hayward, Celebration Bulletin (1931) no. 15.
113. J. A. Thomson, 'The history of science', New Statesman, January 1921, 387-8, on 388. For a related discussion of the representation of 'great moments' in art, see J. Duffin and A. Li, 'Great moments: Parke, Davis and Company and the creation of medical art', Isis (1995), 86, 1-29.
114. J. A. Thomson, 'The history of science', New Statesman, January 1921, 387-8, on 388. For a related discussion of the representation of 'great moments' in art, see J. Duffin and A. Li, 'Great moments: Parke, Davis and Company and the creation of medical art', Isis (1995), 86, 1-29.
115. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
116. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
117. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
118. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
119. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
120. The BAAS section L research committee on 'Training in Citizenship' was headed by Bishop Welldon and reported in Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff 1920, 281-320. See also Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 361-75; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Hull 1922, 337-50; Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Liverpool 1923, 422; and Collins, op. cit. (7), 282-305. The committee's silence on Hayward's project is all the more puzzling because the committee employed the help of the Civic Education League, the successor of the Moral Instruction League with which Hayward's friend Gould was heavily involved. Furthermore, Hayward's books were reviewed in Nature, which was edited by one of the Welldon Committee's members, namely Richard Gregory.
121. Thomson, op. cit. (60), 388.
122. Hayward and Freeman, op. cit. (57), pp. x-xi. Armstrong remained pessimistic also with regard to the likelihood of 'bringing the churches into line...[since they] make no attempt to inculcate truth or to search after it'.
123. Hayward and Freeman, op. cit. (57), pp. xliv-xlvii, xlv.
124. Nature, 24 April 1919, 143.
125. The latter included J. J. Findlay and the head of the Liverpool department, Professor E. T. Campagnac. Even at Cambridge, which had to wait for a chair in education until 1938, support for a science-integrating approach to history was shown by Ernest Barker, president of BAAS section L in 1924.
126. This notion is commonly associated with the later work of R. G. Collingwood, one of the chief disseminators of Crocean thought amongst the British idealists.
127. J. J. Findlay, History and Its Place in Education, With Special References to English Schools and Colleges, London, 1923, 151.
128. Findlay, op. cit. (68), 130, 134.
129. The Teaching of History. Board of Education Pamphlet No 37, with an introductory note by H. A. L. Fisher, 21.
130. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), introduction.
131. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), 21.
132. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), 20-1.
133. Selleck, op. cit. (19); see for example R. H. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, London, 1885, 524-5. Quick had been an assistant master at Harrow and was a lecturer in the history of education at Cambridge. The original version of the book was first published in 1868.
134. Selleck, op. cit. (19); see for example R. H. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, London, 1885, 524-5. Quick had been an assistant master at Harrow and was a lecturer in the history of education at Cambridge. The original version of the book was first published in 1868.
135. Stephen Ball, Alex Kenny and David Gardiner, 'Literacy, politics and the teaching of English', in Bringing English to Order: The History and Politics of a School Subject (ed. Ivor Goodson and Peter Medway), London, 1990, 47-86; and C. Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932, Oxford, 1987. On the pre- history of the Newbolt Committee, see Brian Doyle, 'The invention of English', in Englishness. Politics and Culture 1880-1920 (ed. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd), London, 1986, 89-115. The monograph of George Sampson, a school inspector and one of the committee's members, was equally successful. George Sampson, English for the English, Cambridge, 1921.
136. Stephen Ball, Alex Kenny and David Gardiner, 'Literacy, politics and the teaching of English', in Bringing English to Order: The History and Politics of a School Subject (ed. Ivor Goodson and Peter Medway), London, 1990, 47-86; and C. Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932, Oxford, 1987. On the pre- history of the Newbolt Committee, see Brian Doyle, 'The invention of English', in Englishness. Politics and Culture 1880-1920 (ed. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd), London, 1986, 89-115. The monograph of George Sampson, a school inspector and one of the committee's members, was equally successful. George Sampson, English for the English, Cambridge, 1921.
137. Stephen Ball, Alex Kenny and David Gardiner, 'Literacy, politics and the teaching of English', in Bringing English to Order: The History and Politics of a School Subject (ed. Ivor Goodson and Peter Medway), London, 1990, 47-86; and C. Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932, Oxford, 1987. On the pre-history of the Newbolt Committee, see Brian Doyle, 'The invention of English', in Englishness. Politics and Culture 1880-1920 (ed. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd), London, 1986, 89-115. The monograph of George Sampson, a school inspector and one of the committee's members, was equally successful. George Sampson, English for the English, Cambridge, 1921.
138. Stephen Ball, Alex Kenny and David Gardiner, 'Literacy, politics and the teaching of English', in Bringing English to Order: The History and Politics of a School Subject (ed. Ivor Goodson and Peter Medway), London, 1990, 47-86; and C. Baldick, The Social Mission of English Criticism, 1848-1932, Oxford, 1987. On the pre- history of the Newbolt Committee, see Brian Doyle, 'The invention of English', in Englishness. Politics and Culture 1880-1920 (ed. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd), London, 1986, 89-115. The monograph of George Sampson, a school inspector and one of the committee's members, was equally successful. George Sampson, English for the English, Cambridge, 1921.
139. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922 Unity History School. See Marvin, op. cit. (12).
140. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922 Unity History School. See Marvin, op. cit. (12).
141. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922
142. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922 Unity History School. See Marvin, op. cit. (12).
143. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922 Unity History School. See Marvin, op. cit. (12).
144. F. S. Marvin's The Living Past. A Sketch of Western Progress, Oxford, 1913, also a best-seller, had already included a chapter on 'the rise of modern science'. William Osier acknowledged the book's relevance in an introduction to the first volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), i, p. vi. The second volume of Singer, op. cit. (15), included an article by Marvin on 'Science and the unity of mankind' (ii, 344-58). Singer's preface thanked Marvin for his great service in popularizing the history of science, and above all in seeking to integrate 'this important aspect of human development in the historical instruction of schools' (i, p. viii). Singer was referring to the forthcoming Board of Education report, see Teaching of History, op. cit. (70). Some of the authors contributing to Singer, op. cit. (15), subsequently performed in Marvin's 1922 Unity History School. See Marvin, op. cit. (12).
145. This collective silence cannot be considered accidental, for both Findlay and the Report supported 'time charts', a pedagogical tool approved by Hayward and Freeman; see Hayward, op. cit. (57), and Hayward and Freeman, op. cit. (57).
146. This collective silence cannot be considered accidental, for both Findlay and the Report supported 'time charts', a pedagogical tool approved by Hayward and Freeman; see Hayward, op. cit. (57), and Hayward and Freeman, op. cit. (57).
147. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), 27-8.
148. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), 23.
149. Accordingly, the 1921 report of the Welldon Committee, which argued in favour of direct moral and civic instruction, failed to galvanize British educators. Official response, much like that of headmasters and headmistresses, was overall discouraging. Henry Hadow, chairman of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education that reported in 1927 (the famous Hadow Report), publicly criticized the Welldon Committee's suggestion and demanded that civics should continue to be disseminated incidentally in history, literature and geography lessons. See Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 362-6; Henry Hadow, Citizenship, Oxford, 1923, 194-200; quoted from Collins, op. cit. (7), 297.
150. Accordingly, the 1921 report of the Welldon Committee, which argued in favour of direct moral and civic instruction, failed to galvanize British educators. Official response, much like that of headmasters and headmistresses, was overall discouraging. Henry Hadow, chairman of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education that reported in 1927 (the famous Hadow Report), publicly criticized the Welldon Committee's suggestion and demanded that civics should continue to be disseminated incidentally in history, literature and geography lessons. See Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 362-6; Henry Hadow, Citizenship, Oxford, 1923, 194-200; quoted from Collins, op. cit. (7), 297.
151. Accordingly, the 1921 report of the Welldon Committee, which argued in favour of direct moral and civic instruction, failed to galvanize British educators. Official response, much like that of headmasters and headmistresses, was overall discouraging. Henry Hadow, chairman of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education that reported in 1927 (the famous Hadow Report), publicly criticized the Welldon Committee's suggestion and demanded that civics should continue to be disseminated incidentally in history, literature and geography lessons. See Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Edinburgh 1921, 362-6; Henry Hadow, Citizenship, Oxford, 1923, 194-200; quoted from Collins, op. cit. (7), 297.
152. Findlay, op. cit. (68), 34, 36, 136.
153. J. J. Findlay, 'The growth of moral ideas in children', in Moral Instruction and Training in Schools (ed. Michael Sadler), 2 vols., London, 1908, i, 22-35, on 33.
154. Teaching of History, op. cit. (70), 20 (italics in original).
155. Findlay, op. cit. (82), 29, accused the Moral Instruction League of courting 'the risk of moral decadence' by divorcing practice from precept. Hadow, op. cit. (80), 196, criticized the League's syllabus on account of it being 'bad because intrusive and premature'; see Collins, op. cit. (70), 301.
156. Findlay, op. cit. (82), 29, accused the Moral Instruction League of courting 'the risk of moral decadence' by divorcing practice from precept. Hadow, op. cit. (80), 196, criticized the League's syllabus on account of it being 'bad because intrusive and premature'; see Collins, op. cit. (70), 301.
157. Findlay, op. cit. (82), 29, accused the Moral Instruction League of courting 'the risk of moral decadence' by divorcing practice from precept. Hadow, op. cit. (80), 196, criticized the League's syllabus on account of it being 'bad because intrusive and premature'; see Collins, op. cit. (70), 301.
158. Sampson, op. cit. (75). The quote is taken from a review of the second edition by A. E. Heath in Science Progress (1925-6) 20, 237-41, on 238.
159. Sampson, op. cit. (75). The quote is taken from a review of the second edition by A. E. Heath in Science Progress (1925-6) 20, 237-41, on 238.
160. See for example the discussion on education and democracy at the fifth annual Conference of Educational Associations in London in The Times, 3 January 1917, 10.
161. Singer mentions the scheme both in Singer, op. cit. (15), and in a letter to Joseph Needham, dated 20 June 1948 (Needham papers, University Library, Cambridge, Box B 309).