Dermatologic diseases of the vulva

Clinics in Dermatology

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 53-65

  Kamarashev, Jivko A ^a   Vassileva, Snejina G ^a  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF SOFIA   (Bulgaria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BULLOUS SKIN DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONTACT DERMATITIS; FEMALE; HUMAN; LICHEN PLANUS; LICHEN SCLEROSUS ET ATROPHICUS; PAPILLOMATOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VAGINA CANDIDIASIS; VULVA DISEASE; VULVITIS;

EID: 0031081767     PISSN: 0738081X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0738-081X(96)00110-1     Document Type: Article

References (158)

1. 1. Berg AO, Heidrich FE, Fihn SD, et al. Establishing the course of genitourinary symptoms in women in a family practice. Comparison of clinical examination and comprehensive microbiology. JAMA 1984;251:620-5.
2. 2. Evans EGV. Diagnostic laboratory techniques in vaginal candidosis. Br J Clin Pract 1990;44(suppl 71):70-2.
3. 3. Kerridge D, Nicholas RO. Drug resistance in the opportunistic pathogens Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986;18(suppl B):39-40.
4. 4. Horowitz BJ, Edelstein SW, Lippman L. Candida tropicalis vulvovaginitis. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:229-32.
5. 5. Odds FC. Candida and candidosis. 2nd ed. London: Balliere Tindall, 1988.
6. 6. Merz WG. Candida albicans strain delineation. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990;3:321-34.
7. 7. Odds FC, Abbott AB. A simple system for presumptive identification of Candida albicans and differentiation of strains within the species. Sabouraudia 1980;18:301-17.
8. 8. Odds FC, Abbott AB. Modification and extension of tests for differentiation of Candida species and strains. Sabouraudia 1983;31:79-81.
9. 9. Slutsky B, Buffo J, Soll DR. High-frequency switching of colony morphology in Candida albicans. Science 1985;230: 666-9.
10. 10. Soll DR. High-frequency switching in Candida albicans and its relation to vaginal candidosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;158:997-1001.
11. 11. Kennedy MJ. Adhesion and association mechanisms of Candida albicans. In: McGinnis MR, editor. Current topics in medical mycology. Vol. 2. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1988:73-169.
12. 12. King RD, Lee JC, Morris AL. Adherence of Candida albicans and other Candida species to mucosal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1980;27:667-74.
13. 13. Ray TL, Digre KB, Payne CD. Adherence of Candida species to human epidermal corneocytes and buccal mucosal cells: correlation with cutaneous pathogenicity. J Invest Dermatol 1984;83:37-41.
14. 14. Lehrer N, Segal E, Cihlar RL, Calderone RA. Pathogenesis of vaginal candidosis: studies with a mutant which has reduced ability to adhere in vitro. J Med Vet Mycology 1986;24:127-31.
15. 15. Kimura LH, Pearsall NN. Relationship between germination of Candida albicans and increased adherence to human buccal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1980;28: 464-8.
16. 16. Sobel JD, Muller G, Buckley HR. Critical role of germ-tube formation in the pathogenesis of Candida vaginitis. Infect Immun 1984;44:576-80.
17. 17. Douglas LJ. Mannoprotein adhesions of Candida albicans, In: Bennett JE, Hay RJ, Peterson PK, editors. New strategies in fungal disease. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1992:34-53.
18. 18. Miyakawa Y, Kuribayashi T, Kagaya K, et al. Role of specific determinants in mannan of Candida albicans serotype A in adherence to human buccal epithelial cells. Infecti Immun 1992;60:2493-9.
19. 19. Lehrer N, Segal E, Lis H, et al. Effect of Candida cell wall components on the adhesion of the fungus to human and murine vaginal mucosa. Mycopathologia 1988;102:115-21.
20. 20. Iwata K. Fungal toxins and their role in etiopathology of fungal infections. In: Iwata K, editor. Recent advances in medical and veterinary mycology. Tokyo, Japan: University Park Press, 1975:15-34.
21. 21. Negi M, Tsuboi R, Matsui T, Ogawa H. Isolation and characterization of proteinase from Candida albicans: substrate specificity. J Invest Dermatol 1984;83:32-6.
22. 22. Tsuboi R, Kurita Y, Negi M, et al. A specific inhibitor of keratinolytic proteinase from Candida albicans could inhibit the cell growth of C. albicans. J Invest Dermatol 1985;85:438-40.
23. 23. Borg M, Ruchel R. Expression of extracellular acid proteinase by proteolytic Candida spp. during experimental infection of oral mucosa. Infect Immun 1988,56:626-31.
24. 24. Ray TL, Payne CD. Scanning electron microscopy of epidermal adherence and cavitation in murine candidosis: a role for Candida acid proteinase. Infect Immun 1988;56: 1942-9.
25. 25. McDonald F, Odds F. Inducible proteinase of Candida albicans in diagnostic serology and in the pathogenesis of systemic Candidosis. J Med Microbiol 1980;13:423-35.
26. 26. Borg M, Ruchel R. Demonstration of fungal proteinase during phagocytosis of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis. J Med Vet Mycol 1990;28:3-14.
27. 27. Davidson F, Oates JK. The pill does not cause "thrush." Br J Obstet Gynecol 1985;92:1265-6.
28. 28. Sobel JD. Epidemiology and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 152: 924-35.
29. 29. Miles MR, Olsen L, Rogers A. Recurrent vaginal candidosis. Importance of an intestinal reservoir. JAMA 1977; 238:1836-7.
30. 30. Rashid S, Collins M, Kennedy RJ. A study of candidosis: the role of fomites. Genitourinary Med 1991;67:137-42.
31. 31. Horowitz BJ, Edelstein SW, Lippman L. Sexual transmission of Candida. Obstet Gynecol 1987;69:883-6.
32. 32. Schonheyder H, Johansen JA, Moller-Hansen C, et al. IgA and IgG serum antibodies to Candida albicans in women of child-bearing age. Sabouraudia 1983;21:223-31.
33. 33. Gough PM, Warnock DW, Richardson MD, et al. IgA and IgG antibodies to Candida albicans in the genital tract secretions of women with or without vaginal candidosis. J Med Vet Mycol 1984;22:265-71.
34. 34. Ishiguro A, Homma M, Sukar T, et al. Immunoblotting analysis of sera from patients with candidal vaginitis and healthy females. J Med Vet Mycol 1992;30:281-92.
35. 35. Hobbs JR, Brigden D, Davidson F, et al. Immunological aspects of Candida vaginitis. Proc R Soc Med 1977; 70 (suppl 4):11-3.
36. 36. Witkin SS, Yu IR, Ledger WJ. Inhibition of Candida albicans-induced lymphocyte proliferation by lymphocytes and sera from women with recurrent vaginitis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;147:809-11.
37. 37. Shah DT, Glover DD, Larsen G. In situ mycotoxin production by Candida albicans in women with vaginitis. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1995;39:67-9.
38. 38. Fidel PL Jr, Lynch ME, Redondo Lopez V, et al. Systemic cell-mediated immune reactivity in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis. J Infect Dis 1993;168:1458-65.
39. 39. Kudeldo NM. Allergy in chronic moniliasis vaginitis. Ann Allergy 1971;29:266-7.
40. 40. Palacios HJ. Hypersensitivity as a cause of dermatologic and vaginal moniliasis resistant to topical therapy. Ann Allergy 1976;37:110-3.
41. 41. Witkin SS, Jeremias J, Ledger WJ. Vaginal eosinophils and IgE antibodies to Candida albicans in women with recurrent vaginitis. J Med Vet Mycol 1989;27:57-8.
42. 42. Rosendale N, Browne K. Hyposensitization in the management of recurring vaginal candidosis. Ann Allergy 1979;43:250-3.
43. 43. Monif GRG. Classification and pathogenesis of vulvovaginal candidosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;152: 935-9.
44. 44. Rajakumar R, Lacey CJN, Evans EGV, et al. Use of slide latex agglutination test for rapid diagnosis of vaginal candidosis. Genitourinary Med 1987;63:192-5.
45. 45. Merkus JMWM, van Heusden AM. Chronic vulvovaginal candidosis: the role of oral therapy. Br J Clin Pract 1989;44(suppl 71):81-4.
46. 46. McKey M. Vulvodynia: a multifactorial clinical problem. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:256-62.
47. 47. Friedrich EG Jr. Vulvar vestibulitis syndrome. J Reprod Med 1987;32:110-4.
48. 48. Furlonge CB, Thin RN, Evans BE, et al. Vulvar vestibulitis syndrome: a clinico-pathological study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991;98:703-6.
49. 49. Goetsch MF. Vulvar vestibulitis: prevalence and historic features in a general gynecologic practice population. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1609-14.
50. 50. Turner ML, Marinoff SC. Association of human papillomavirus with vulvodynia and the vulvar vestibulitis syndrome. J Reprod Med 1988;33:533-7.
51. 51. Wilkinson EJ, Guerrero E, Daniel R, et al. Vulvar vestibulitis is rarely associated with human papillomavirus infection types 6, 11, 16, or 18. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1993; 12:344-9.
52. 52. Bergeron C, Moyal Barracco M, Pelisse M, et al. Vulvar vestibulitis. Lack of evidence for a human papillomavirus etiology. J Reprod Med 1994;39:936-8.
53. 53. Prayson RA, Stoler MH, Hart WR. Vulvar vestibulitis. A histopathologic study of 36 cases including human papillomavirus in situ hybridization analysis. Am J Surg Pathol 1995;19:154-60.
54. 54. Ashman RB, Ott AK. Autoimmunity as a factor in recurrent vaginal candidosis and the minor vestibular gland syndrome. J Reprod Med 1989;34:264-6.
55. 55. Bazin S, Bouchard C, Brisson J, et al. Vulvar vestibulitis syndrome: an exploratory case-control study. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:47-50.
56. 56. Solomon CC. Calcium citrate for vulvar vestibulitis. A case report. J Reprod Med 1991;36:879-82.
57. 57. Fitzpatrick CC, DeLancey JO, Elkins TE, et al. Vulvar vestibulitis and interstitial cystitis: a disorder of urogenital sinus-derived epithelium? Obstet Gynecol 1993;81: 860-2.
58. 58. Peckham BM, Maki DG, Patterson JJ, et al. Focal vulvitis: a characteristic syndrome and cause of dyspareunia. Features, natural history, and management. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;154:855-64.
59. 59. Foster DC, Robinson JC, Davis KM. Urethral pressure variation in women with vulvar vestibulitis syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:107-12.
60. 60. Glazer HI, Rodke G, Swencionis C, et al. Treatment of vulvar vestibulitis syndrome with electromyographic biofeedback of pelvic floor musculature. J Reprod Med 1995;40:283-90.
61. 61. Schover LR, Youngs DD, Cannata R. Psychosexual aspects of the evaluation and management of vulvar vestibulitis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:630-6.
62. 62. de Jong JM, van Lunsen RH, Robertson EA, et al. Focal vulvitis: a psychosexual problem for which surgery is not the answer. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 1995;16: 85-91.
63. 63. Axe S, Parmley T, Woodruff JD, et al. Adenomas in minor vestibular glands. Obstet Gynecol 1986;68:16-8.
64. 64. Bornstein J, Pascal B, Abramovici H. Treatment of a patient with vulvar vestibulitis by intramuscular interferon beta: a case report. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1991;42:237-9.
65. 65. Bornstein J, Pascal B, Abramovici H. Intramuscular beta-interferon treatment for severe vulvar vestibulitis. J Reprod Med 1993;38:117-20.
66. 66. Marinoff SC, Turner ML, Hirsch RP, et al. Intralesional alpha interferon. Cost-effective therapy for vulvar vestibulitis syndrome. J Reprod Med 1993;38:19-24.
67. 67. Altmeyer P, Chilf GN, Holzman H. Pseudokondylome der vulva. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 1981;41:783-6.
68. 68. Welch JM, Nayagam M, Parry G, et al. What is vestibular papillomatosis? A study of its prevalence, aetiology and natural history. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1993;100:932-42.
69. 69. Growdon WA, Fu YS, Lebherz TB, et al. Pruritic vulvar squamous papillomatosis: evidence for human papillomavirus infection. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:564-8.
70. 70. Manoharan V, Sommerville JM. Benign squamous papillomatosis: case report. Genitourin Med 1987;63:393-5.
71. 71. Costa S, Rotola A, Terzano P, et al. Is vestibular papillomatosis associated with human papillomavirus? J Med Virol 1991;35:7-13.
72. 72. Moyal-Barraco M, Leibowitch M, Orth G. Vestibular papillae of the vulva. Lack of evidence for human papillomavirus etiology. Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1594-8.
73. 73. Ferenczy A, Mitao M, Nagai N, et al. Latent papillomavirus and recurrent genital warts. N Engl J Med 1985; 313:784-8.
74. 74. Potkul RK, Lancaster WD, Kurman RJ, et al. Vulvar condylomas and squamous vestibular micropapilloma. Differences in appearance and response to treatment. J Reprod Med 1990;35:1019-22.
75. 75. Xia MY, Zhu WY, Li HX, et al. Hirsutoid papilloma of vulvae: absences of human papilloma virus DNA by the polymerase chain reaction. J Dermatol Sci 1994;7:84-8.
76. 76. Fimiani M, Mazzatenta C, Biagioli M, et al. Vulvar squamous papillomatosis and human papillomavirus infection. A polymerase chain reaction study. Arch Dermatol Res 1993;285:250-4.
77. 77. Gamier G. Vulvite érythémateuse circonscrite bénigne à type érythroplasique. Bull Soc Fr Dermatol Syphilol 1954;61:102-4.
78. 78. Davis J, Shapiro L, Baral J. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:413-6.
79. 79. Nedwich JA, Chong KC. Zoon's vulvitis. Austral J Dermatol 1987;28:11-3.
80. 80. Morioka S, Nakajima S, Yaguchi H, et al. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis treated successfully with interferon alpha. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:947-50.
81. 81. Woodruff JD, Sussman J, Shakfeh S. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmocellularis. A report of four cases. J Reprod Med 1989;34:369-72.
82. 82. McCreedy CA, Melski JW. Vulvar erythema. Vulvitis chronica plasmacellularis (Zoon's vulvitis). Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1352-3, 1356.
83. 83. Kavanagh GM, Burton PA, Kennedy CT. Vulvitis chronica plasmacellularis (Zoon's vulvitis). Br J Dermatol 1993; 129:92-3.
84. 84. Scurry J, Dennerstein G, Bernan J, et al. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis. A clinicopathologic entity? J Reprod Med 1993;38:14-8.
85. 85. Hautmann G, Geti V, Difonzo EM. Vulvitis circumscripta plasmacellularis. Int J Dermatol 1994;33:496-7.
86. 86. Yoganathan S, Bohl TG, Mason G. Plasma cell balanitis and vulvitis (of Zoon). A study of 10 cases. J Reprod Med 1994;39:939-44.
87. 87. Souteyrand P, Wong E, McDonald DM. Zoon's balanitis (Balanitis circumscripta plasmacellularis). Br J Dermatol 1981;105:195-9.
88. 88. Nishimura M, Matsuda T, Muto M, et al. Balanitis of Zoon. Int J Dermatol 1990;29:421-3.
89. 89. Scuermann H. Plasmocytosis circumorificialis, Deut Zahnärztl Z 1960;15:601-10.
90. 90. Bourgeois Droin C, Granier F, Pedreiro J, et al. Localisations vulvo-vaginales et du col uterin revelatrices d'un pemphigus vulgaire. Efficacite des sels d'or. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1990;117:894-5.
91. 91. Lever WF. Pemphigus and pemphigoid - a review of the advances made since 1964. J Am Acad Dermatol 1979;1: 2-31.
92. 92. Hausten UF. Localized nonscarring bullous pemphigoid of the vagina. Dermatologica 1988; 176:200-1.
93. 93. Rupprecht M, Stäbler A, Hornstein OP. Genitale schleimhautmanifestation eines lokalisierten bullösen pemphigoids. Hautarzt 1991;42:183-5.
94. 94. De Castro P, Jorizzo JL, Rajaraman S, et al. Localized vulvar pemphigoid in a child. Pediatr Dermatol 1985;2: 302-7.
95. 95. Guenther LC, Shum D. Localized childhood vulvar pemphigoid. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:762-4.
96. 96. Oranje AP, Vuzevski VD, Van Joast T, et al. Bullous pemphigoid in children. Int J Dermatol 1991;30:339-42.
97. 97. Levine V, Sanchez M, Nestor M. Localized vulvar pemphigoid in a child misdiagnosed as sexual abuse. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:804-6.
98. 98. Saad RW, Domloge-Hultsch N, Yancey KB, et al. Childhood localized vulvar pemphigoid is a true variant of bullous pemphigoid. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:807-10.
99. 99. Saulsbury FT, Hayden GF. Skin conditions simulating child abuse. Pediatr Emerg Care 1985;1:147-50.
100. 100. Herman-Giddens ME, Berson NL. Dermatologic conditions misdiagnosed as evidence of child abuse. JAMA 1989;261:3546-7.
101. 101. Arndt KA. Lichen planus. In: Fitzpatrick TB, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al., editors. Dermatology in general medicine. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987:967-73.
102. 102. Edwards L. Vulvar lichen planus. Arch Dermatol 1989; 125:1677-80.
103. 103. Soper DE, Patterson JW, Hurt WG, et al. Lichen planus of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1988;72:74-6.
104. 104. Pelisse M, Leibowitch M, Sedel P, et al. Un nouveau syndrome vulvo-vagino-gingival: lichen plan erosif plurimuqueux. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1982;109:797-8.
105. 105. Pelisse M. The vulvo-vaginal-gingival syndrome: a new form of erosive lichen planus. Int J Dermatol 1989;28: 381-4.
106. 106. Eisen D. The vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome of lichen planus: The clinical characteristics of 22 patients. Arch Dermatol 1994;130:1379-82.
107. 107. Lewis FM, Harrington CI. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in vulval lichen planus. Br J Dermatol 1994;131:703-5.
108. 108. Bécherel PA, Chosidow O, Boisnic S, et al. Topical cyclosporine in the treatment of oral and vulvar erosive lichen planus: A blood level monitoring study. Arch Dermatol 1995;131:495-6.
109. 109. Borrego L, Ruiz-Rodriguez R, Oritz de Frutos J, et al. Vulvar lichen planus treated with topical cyclosporine. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:794.
110. 110. Meffert JJ, Davis BM, Grimwood RE. Lichen sclerosus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32:393-416.
111. 111. Breisky A. Úber Kraurosis vulvae. Z Heilkr 1885;6:69.
112. 112. Hallopeau H. Lichen plan atroqhique. Ann Dermatol Syphilol (Paris) 1887;8:790.
113. 113. Gardner HL, Kaufman RH. Vulvar dystrophies. In: Gardner HL, Kaufman RH, editors. Benign diseases of the vulva and vagina. Saint Louis: C.V. Mosby, 1969:121-38.
114. 114. Kindler T. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in young subjects. Br J Dermatol 1953;65:269-79.
115. 115. Di Silverio A, Serri F. Generalized bullous and haemorrhagic lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Br J Dermatol 1975; 93:215-7.
116. 116. Barker LP, Gross P. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the female genitalia. Arch Dermatol 1962;85:362-71.
117. 117. Clark JA, Muller SA. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in children. Arch Dermatol 1967;95:476-82.
118. 118. Berth Jones J, Graham Brown RA, Bruns DA. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus: A review of 15 cases in young girls. Clin Exp Dermatol 1991;16:14-7.
119. 119. Loening Baucke V. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in children. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:1058-61.
120. 120. Jenny C, Kirby P, Fuquay D. Genital lichen sclerosus et atrophicus mistaken for child sexual abuse. Pediatrics 1989;83:597-9.
121. 121. Young SJ, Wells DL, Ogden EJ. Lichen sclerosus, genital trauma, and child sexual abuse. Aust Fam Physician 1993;22:729, 732-3.
122. 122. Daróczy J, Török E. Electronmicroscopy of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 1974;60:183-7.
123. 123. Frances C, Wechsler J, Meimon G, et al. Investigation of intercellular matrix macromolecules involved in lichen sclerosus. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1983;63:483-90.
124. 124. Panizzon R, Vuorio T, Bruckner-Tuderman L. Collagen biosynthesis and type I and type III procollagen mRNA in lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Arch Dermatol Res 1990;282:480-3.
125. 125. Wallace HJ. Lichen sclerosis et atrophicus. Trans St Johns Hosp Soc 1971;57:9-30.
126. 126. Rodke G, Friedrich EG, Wilkinson EJ. Malignant potential of mixed vulvar dystrophy (lichen sclerosus associated with squamous cell hyperplasia). J Reprod Med 1988;33:545-50.
127. 127. Frierich EG Jr, MacLaren NK. Genetic aspects of vulvar lichen sclerosus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984;150:161-6.
128. 128. Thomas RHM, Kennedy CT. The development of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in monozygotic twin girls. Br J Dermatol 1986;114:377-9.
129. 129. Shirer JA, Ray MC. Familial occurrence of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Arch Dermatol 1987;123:485-8.
130. 130. Sideri M, Rognoni M, Rizzolo L, et al. Antigens of the HLA system in women with vulvar lichen sclerosus: Association with HLA-B21. J Reprod Med 1988;33:551-4.
131. 131. Harrington CI, Gelsthorpe K. The association between lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and HLA-B40. Br J Dermatol 1981;104:561-2.
132. 132. Purcell KG, Spencer LV, Simpson PM, et al. HLA antigens in lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1043-5.
133. 133. Harrington CI, Dunsomore IR. An investigation into the incidence of auto-immune disorders in patients with lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Br J Dermatol 1981;104: 563-6.
134. 134. Meyrick Thomas RH, Ridley CM, McGibbon DH, et al. Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and autoimmunity - a study of 350 women. Br J Dermatol 1988;118:41-6.
135. 135. Gooamali SK, Barnes EW, Irvine WJ, et al. Organ-specific antibodies in patients with lichen sclerosus. Br Med J 1974;4:78-9.
136. 136. Carli P, Cattaneo A, Pimpinelli N, et al Immunohistochemical evidence of skin immune system involvement in vulvar lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Dermatologica 1991;182:18-22.
137. 137. Friedrich EG, Kalra PS. Serum levels of sex hormones in vulvar lichen sclerosus and the effect of topical testosterone. N Engl J Med 1984;308:488-91.
138. 138. Aberer E, Stanek G. Histological evidence for spirochetal origin of morphea and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Am J Dermatopathol 1987;9:374-9.
139. 139. Aberer E, Kolleger H, Kristofeirtsch W, et al. Neuroborreliosis in morphea and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. J Am Acad Dermatol 1988;19:820-5.
140. 140. Ross SA, Sanches JL, Taboas JO. Spirochetal forms in the dermal lesions of morphea and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Am J Dermatopathol 1990;12:357-62.
141. 141. Dalziel KL, Millard PR, Wojnarowska F. The treatment of vulval lichen sclerosus with a very potent topical steroid (clobetasol propionate 0.05%) cream. Br J Dermatol 1991; 124:461-4.
142. 142. Carli P, Cattaneo A, Giannotti B. Clobetasol propionate 0.05% cream in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: effect on the immunohistological profile. Br J Dermatol 1992;127:542-3.
143. 143. Dalziel KL, Wojnarowska F. Long-term control of vulval lichen sclerosus after treatment with a potent steroid cream. J Reprod Med 1993;38:25-7.
144. 144. Sideri M, Origoni M, Spinaci L, et al. Topical testosterone in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994;46:53-6.
145. 145. Ayhan A, Urman B, Yuce K, et al. Topical testosterone for lichen sclerosus. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1989;30:253-5.
146. 146. Carli P, Cattaneo A, Taddei G, et al. Topical cyclosporine in the treatment of vulvar lichen sclerosus: clinical, histologic, and immunohistochemical findings. Arch Dermatol 1992;128:1279-80.
147. 147. Mork NJ, Jensen P, Hoel PS. Vulval lichen sclerosus et atrophicus treated with etretinate (Tigason®). Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1986;66:363-5.
148. 148. Romppanen U, Rantala I, Lauslahti K, et al. Light-and electron-microscopic findings in lichen sclerosus of the vulva during etretinate treatment. Dermatologica 1987; 175:33-40.
149. 149. Niinimaki A, Kallioinen M, Oikarinen A. Etretinate reduces connective tissue degeneration in lichen sclerosus et atrophicus. Acta Derm Venereol 1989;69:439-42.
150. 150. Buosema MT, Romppanen U, Geiger JM, et al. Acitretin in the treatment of severe lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the vulva: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;30:225-31.
151. 151. Elsner P, Wilhelm D, Maibach HI. Physiological skin surface water loss dynamics of human vulvar and forearm skin. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1990;70:141-4.
152. 152. Elsner P, Maibach HI. The effect of prolonged drying on transepidermal water loss, capacitance and pH of human and forearm skin. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1990;70: 105-9.
153. 153. Britz MB, Maibach HI. Human percutaneous penetration of hydrocortisone: the vulva. Arch Derm Res 1980;267: 313-6.
154. 154. Britz MB, Maibach HI. Human cutaneous vulvar reactivity to irritants. Contact Dermatitis 1979;5:375-7.
155. 155. Elsner P, Wilhelm D, Maibach HI. The effect of low-concentration sodium lauryl sulfate on human vulvar and forearm skin: Age-related differences. J Reprod Med 1990;36:77-81.
156. 156. Elsner P, Wilhelm D, Maibach HI. Study on sodium lauryl sulfate-induced irritant contact dermatitis in vulvar and forearm skin of pre-and postmenopausal women. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;23:648-52.
157. 157. Elsner P, Maibach HI. Irritant and allergic contact dermatitis. In: Elsner P, Martius J, editors. Vulvovaginitis. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993:61-82.
158. 158. Marren P, Wojnarowska F, Powell S. Allergic contact dermatitis and vulvar dermatoses. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126:52-6.