Indoor Radon Gas: A Potential Health Hazard Resulting from Implementing Energy-Efficiency Measures

Applied Energy

Volumn 56, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 93-196

  Lugg, Andrew ^a   Probert, Douglas ^a  

^a CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BUILDINGS; CARCINOGENS; ENERGY EFFICIENCY; HEALTH HAZARDS; INDOOR AIR POLLUTION; RADIATION EFFECTS;

INDOOR RADON GAS;

RADON;

EID: 0031074896     PISSN: 03062619     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0306-2619(97)00002-0     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Johnson, S., Greener Buildings - Environmental Impact of Property, The Macmillan Press Ltd, London, 1993, pp. 30-37.
2. Hines, A. L., Tushar, K. and Sadurshan, K., Indoor-Air Quality and Pollution, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1993.
3. Lindwark, A. and Rosén, B., Radon in the Soil, Exhalation - the Water Ratio, Annual Temporal Variations, Permeability. Report 24, Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Linköping (in Swedish), 1984.
4. Steinhäusler, F., Hoffman, W. and Lettner, H., Thoron exposure of man: A negligible issue? Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 127-131.
5. George, A. C. and Breslin, A. J., The distribution of ambient radon and radon daughters in residential buildings in the New Jersey - New York area. In Natural Radiation Environment, p. 1272, ed T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder, Tech. Info. Ctr/DOE CONF-780422, Springfield, VA, 1980.
6. Hildingson, O., Radon measurements in 12000 Swedish homes. Environ International, 1982, 8, 67.
7. Nero, A. V., Berk, J. V., Boegel, M. L., Hollowell, C. D., Ingersoll, J. G. and Nazaroff, W. W., Radon concentrations and infiltration rates measured in conventional and energy-efficient houses. Health Physics., 1983, 45, 401.
8. Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B., Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, 1967.
9. Baver, L. D., Soil Physics, Wiley, New York, 1940.
10. Collins, R. E., Flow of Fluids through Porous Materials, Reinhold, New York, 1961.
11. Barretto, P. M. C., Emanation characteristics of terrestrial and lunar materials and the Radon-222 loss-effect on the uranium-lead system discordance. Ph.D. Thesis, Rice University, Houston, 1973.
12. Megumi, K. and Mamuro, T., Emanation and exhalation of radon and thoron gases from soil particles. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1974, 79, 3357.
13. Nazaroff, W. W., Lewis, S. R., Doyle, S. M., Moed, B. A. and Nero, A.V., Experiments on pollutant transport from soil into residential basements by pressure-driven air flow. Environ. Science and Technology, 1987, 21, 459.
14. Schery, S. D., Gaeddert, D. H. and Wilkening, M. H., Factors affecting exhalation of radon from a gravely sandy loam. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1984, 89, 7299.
15. Nazaroff, W. W., Feustel, H., Nero, A. V., Revzan, K. L., Grimsrud, D. T., Essling, M. A. and Toohey, R. E., Radon transport into a one-storey house with a basement. Atmospheric Environment, 1985, 19, 31.
16. Sisigina, T. I., Assessment of radon emanation from the surface of extensive territories. In Nuclear Meteorology, Israeli Programme Of Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1974, p. 239.
17. Andrews, J. N. and Wood, D. F., Mechanism of radon release in rock matrices and entry into quadrants. Transactions Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B, 1972, 81, 198.
18. Strong, K. P. and Levins, D. M., Effect of moisture content on radon emanation from uranium ore and tailings. Health Physics, 1982, 42, 27.
19. Thames. B. J., Nielson, K. K. and Felthauser, K., The effects of moisture on radon emanations including the Effects on Diffusion. Report: Bureau of Mines OFR 184-82, PB83-136358, US Dept. of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, 1981.
20. Ingersoll, J. G., A survey of radionuclide contents and radon emanation rates in building materials used in the US. Health Physics, 1983, 45, 363.
21. Nazaroff, W. W., and Nero, A. V., Radon and its Decay Products in Indoor Air. Wiley Interscience Publications, New York, 1988.
22. Hess, C. T., Weiffenbach, C. V. and Norton, S. A., Environmental radon and cancer correlations in Maine. Health Physics, 1983, 45, 339.
23. Dumbleton, B., Radon in drinking water - is it a problem? Water and Waste Treatment, 1995, 38(10), 134-135.
24. Snihs, J. O., Swedish radon programme. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1992, 42(3), 177-184.
25. Hultqvist, B., Studies on naturally-occurring ionising radiations, Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsaakademiens Handlingar, 4. serien, band 6(3) Almqvist and Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, Stockholm, 1956.
26. Krisiuk, E. M., Tarasov, S. I., Shamov, V. P., Shalak, N. I., Lisachenko, E. P. and Gomelsky, L. G., A study of radioactivity in building materials. National Committee on the Utilisation of Atomic Energy, Leningrad, 1974.
27. Kolb, W., Influence of building materials on the radiation-dose to the population. Kernenegie Offenlichkeit, 1974, 4, 18.
28. Mustonen, R., Activity-concentration of Building Materials in Finland, Nordic Radiation-Protection Society, Meeting, Visby, Sweden (in Swedish), 1979.
29. Stranden, E., Radioactivity of building materials and the gamma radiation in dwellings. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 1979, 24, 921.
30. Ulbak, K., (1980), Natural Radioactivity in Building Materials in Denmark. In Seminar of the radiological burden of man from natural radioactivity in the countries of the European Community, CEC doc. C/2408/80.
31. United Nations' Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1982), Sources and Effects of Ionising Radiation, report to the General Assembly, UN, New York, 1982.
32. Sciochetti, G., Clemente, G. F., Ingrao, G. and Scacco, F., Results of a survey on radioactivity of building materials in Italy. Health Physics., 1983, 45, 385.
33. Folkerts, K. H., Keller, G. and Muth, H., Experimental investigations on diffusion and exhalation of Rn-222 and Rn-220 from building materials. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1984, 7, 41.
34. Soratin, H. and Steger, F., Natural radioactivity of building materials in Austria. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1984, 7, 59.
35. Hamilton, E. I., The relative radioactivity of building materials. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 1972, 32, 398.
36. O'Riordan, M. C., Duggan, M. J., Rose, W. B., and Bradford, G. F., The Radiological Implications of Using By-product Gypsum as a Building Material, National Radiological-Protection Board, report 7, Harwell, Didcot, 1972.
37. Guimond, R. J. and Windham, S. T., Radioactivity Distribution in Phosphate Products, By-products, Effluents and Wastes, Report ORP/CSD-75-3, Office of Radiation Programmes, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC., 1975.
38. Pensko, J., Stpiczynska, Z. and Blaton-Albricka, K., Emanating power of Radon-222 measured in building materials. In Natural Radiation Environment, eds T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder. US Dept. of Energy, rep CONF-780422, 1980, p. 1407.
39. Stranden, E., Assessment of the radiological impact of using fly ash in cement. Health Physics, 1983, 44, 145.
40. The Radiation-Protection Institutes in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, Naturally-Occurring Radiation in the Nordic Countries - levels, 1982.
41. McLaughlin, J. P. and Jonassen, N., The effects of pressure drops on radon exhalation from walls. In Natural Radiation Environment, ed T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder. US Dept. of Energy, CONF-780422, 1980, p. 1225.
42. Pettersson, H., Hildingson, O., Samuelsson, C. and Hedvall, R. R., Radon Exhalation from Building Materials, Statens Provningsanstalt Tekn. rapport SP-Rapp 1982:32, Borås, Sweden, 1982.
43. Stranden, E., Kolstad, A. K. and Lind, B., The influence of moisture and temperature on radon exhalation.. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1984, 7, 55.
44. Stranden, E., Kolstad, A. K. and Lind, B., Radon exhalation: Moisture and temperature dependence. Health Physics, 1984, 47, 480.
45. de Jong, P. and van Dijk, W., Reduction of the radon entry rate from building materials by industrial surface coatings. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 179-183.
46. Stranden, E., Radon in houses utilising stone magazines for heat accumulation. Health Physics, 1981, 41, 29.
47. Nyblom, L., Radon in the Air in Buildings where Heat is Accumulated in Stone Magazines. Nordic Society for Radiation-Protection, Meeting, Geilo, Norway (in Swedish), 1980.
48. Isreal, H., Radioactivity of the Atmosphere. In Compendium of Meteorology, ed. T. F. Malone, American Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951, pp. 155-561.
49. Wilkening, M. H., Clements, W. E. and Stanley, D., Radon-222 flux measurements in widely-separated regions. In Natural Radiation Environment, ed J. A. S. Adams, W. M. Lowder and T. F. Gesell. NTIS, Springfield, VA, 1972, pp. 717 730.
50. Turekian, K. K., Nozaki, Y. and Benninger, L. K., Geochemistry of atmospheric radon and radon products. Annual Review Of Earth Planetary Science, 1977, 5, 227-255.
51. Broecker, W. S. and Peng, T. H., Gas-exchange rates between air and sea. Tellus, 1974, 26, 21-25.
52. Satterly, J., The amount of radon emanation in the atmosphere. Philosophical Magazine, 1908, 16, 584-615.
53. Keller, G. and Folkerts, K. H., Radon-222 concentrations and decay product equilibrium in dwellings and in the open air. Health Physics, 1984, 47, 385-398.
54. Wrixon, A. D. Natural Radiation Exposure in UK Dwellings, Report NRPB-R190, National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot, Oxon., 1988.
55. Gesell, T. F., Background atmosphere Radon-222 concentrations outdoors and indoors. A review, Health Physics, 1983, 45, 289-302.
56. Pearson, J. E. and Jones, G. E., Soil concentrations of emanating Radium-226 and the emanation of Radon-222 from soils and plants. Tellus, 1966, 18, 655-661.
57. NRPB. Natural Radiation Maps of Western Europe, NRPB "at a glance" series, National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot, Oxon., 1993.
58. Daws, L. F., Movement of airstreams indoors. In: Airborne Microbes, ed P. H. Gregory and J. L. Monteith, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1967, pp. 31-59.
59. Chamberlain, A. C., Radioactive Aerosols, Cambridge Environmental Chemistry Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991.
60. Denman, A. R., The significance of raised radon-levels in NHS properties in Northamptonshire. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 54(1), 65-68.
61. Bruno, R. C., Verifying a model of radon-decay product behaviour indoors. Health Physics, 1983, 45, 471.
62. Grot, R. A. and Clarke, R. E., Air-leakage characteristics and weatherisation techniques for low-income housing. Paper presented at the ASHRAE conference Thermal Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Buildings, Orlando, FL, 1981.
63. Grimsrud, D. T., Sherman, M. H. and Sonderegger, R. C., Calculating infiltration: Implications for a construction quality standard. Paper presented at the ASHRAE conference Thermal Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Buildings, Las Vegas, Nevada, 1983.
64. Lamb, B., Westburg, H., Bryant, P., Dean, J. and Mullins, S., Air infiltration rates in pre- and post-weatherised homes. Journal Air-Pollution Control Association, 1985, 35, 545.
65. Anon. Health or Smoking? Pitman, London, 1983.
66. Doll, R. and Peto, R., The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of available risks of cancer in the United States today. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1981, 66, 1191.
67. Spencer, H., Pathology of the Lung. Pergamon, Oxford, 1977.
68. Henshaw, D. L., Eatough, J. P. and Richardson, R. B., Radon as a causative factor in induction of myeloid leukaemia and other cancers. The Lancet, 1990, 335, 1008-1012.
69. Tynes, T., Anderson, A. and Langmark, F., Incidence of cancer in Norwegian workers potentially exposed to electromagnetic fields. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1992, 136, 81-88.
70. Floderus, B., Persson, T., Stenhund, C., Wennberg, A., Öst, A. and Knave, B., Occupational exposure to electromagnetic-fields in relation to leukaemia and brain tumours, case control study in Sweden. Causes and Control, 1993, 4, 465-476.
71. Thériault, G., Goldberg, M., Miller, A. B., Armstrong, B., Guénel, P., Deadman, J., Imbernon, E., To, T., Chevalier, A., Cyr, D. and Wall, C., Cancer risks associated with occupational exposure to magnetic fields among electric utility workers in Ontario and Quebec, Canada and France. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1994, 139, 550-572.
72. Henshaw, D. L., Ross, A. N., Fews, A. P. and Preece, A. W., Enhanced deposition of radon daughter nuclei in the vicinity of power frequency electromagnetic fields. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 1996, 69(1), 25-38.
73. Geofilms. Electricity and Cancer, Channel 4 Despatches Programme, screened 14 February 1996, made by Geofilms, 12 Thame Lane, Culham, Oxford.
74. Hornung, R. W. and Meinhardt, T. J., Quantitative risk assessment of lung cancer in US uranium miners. Health Physics, 1987, 52, 417-430.
75. Samet, J. M., Pathak, D. R., Magan, M. V., Marbury, M. C., Key, C. R. and Valdevia, A. A., Radon-progeny exposure and lung-cancer risk in New Mexico miners: A case control study. Health Physics, 1989, 56, 415-421.
76. Royal Society Study Group. Risk: Analysis, Perception and Management, Royal Society, London, 1992.
77. National Research Council, Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally-Deposited Alpha-Emitters. BEIR IV Report, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1988.
78. NRPB. Radon, 2nd edn, NRPB "at a glance" series, National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot, Oxon., 1994.
79. Monson, R. R., Occupational Epidemiology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1980.
80. Roht, L.H., Selwyn, B.J., Holguin, A.H., and Christensen, B. L. Principles of Epidemiology, Academic Press, New York, 1982.
81. DoE. The Householders' Guide to Radon, Fourth Edition, HMSO, London, 1995.
82. Lubin, J. H. and Boice, J. D., Estimating radon-induced lung cancer in the United States. Health Physics, 1989, 57, 417.
83. Metters, J., Setting Radon in Context. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1992, 42(3), 159-164.
84. Schoon, N., Search stepped up for killer gas under our homes, The Independent, Newspaper Publishing Plc., London, 17 May 1996.
85. DoE. Indoor Pollution - the Government's Response to the Sixth Report of the House of Commons Select Committee on the Environment, HMSO, London, 1991.
86. Environment Committee. Indoor Pollution - Sixth Report, HMSO, London, 1991.
87. Lee, T. R., The public's perception of radon. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1992, 42(3), 257-262.
88. Lee, T. R., Brown, J., Henderson, J., Baillie, A., and Fielding, J., Psychological Perspectives on Nuclear Energy. University of Surrey, 1984.
89. DoE. Householders' Response to the Radon Risk: Summary Report. HMSO, London, 1993.
90. Doyle, J. K., McClelland, G. H., Schulze, W. D., Elliott, S. R. and Russell, G. W., Protective responses to household risk: A case study of radon mitigation. Risk Analysis, 1991, 11(1), 121-134.
91. DoE. Radon in Houses, HMSO, London, 1991.
92. Cartwright, B. G., Shirk, E. K. and Price, P. B., A nuclear-track recording polymer of unique sensitivity and resolution. Nuclear-Track Detection, 1978, 153, 457.
93. Cassou, R. M. and Benton, E. V., Properties and applications of CR-39 polymeric nuclear-track detector. Nuclear Track Detection, 1978, 2, 173.
94. Palmes, E. D., Gunnison, A. F., Dimattio, J. and Tomczyk, C., Personal sampler for nitrogen dioxide. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 1976, 37, 570.
95. Geisling, K. L., Tashima, M. K., Girman, J. R., Miksch, R. R. and Rappaport, S. M., A passive sampling-device for determining the amount of formal-dehyde in indoor air. Environ International, 1987, 8, 153.
96. Cohen, B. L., Comparison of nuclear-track and diffusion-barrier charcoal adsorption methods for measurement of Radon-222 levels in indoor air. Health Physics, 1986, 50, 828.
97. Scivyer, C. R., Surveying Dwellings with High Indoor Radon Levels: A BRE Guide to Radon Remedial Measures in Existing Dwellings. BRE report BR 250, Watford, 1993.
98. Pinel, J., Fearn, T., Darby, S. C. and Miles, J. C. H., Seasonal correction factors for indoor-radon measurements in the UK. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1995, 58(2), 127-132.
99. Whysall, K., Radon Calibration and Tests, Reprinted from Radiological-Protection Bulletin, 152, NRPB, Didcot, Oxon, 1994.
100. Samuelsson, C. and Johanson, L., Long-lived radon-decay products as a long-term radon-exposure indicator. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 45(1-4), 123-126.
101. Kullman, F., Radon-risk mapping: A method of predicting problem areas on geological grounds. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(14), 221-224.
102. NRPB. Statement by the National Radiological Protection Board, limitation of human exposure to radon in homes. Documents of the National Radiological Protection Board, 1(1), HMSO, London, 1990.
103. Miles, J. C. H., Green, B. R. M., Lomas, P. R. and Cliff, K. D., Radon-affected areas: Cornwall and Devon. Documents of the NRPB, 1(4), NRPB, Oxon., 1990.
104. Miles, J. C. H., Green, B. R. M. and Lomas, P. R., Radon-affected areas: Derbyshire, Northamptonshire and Somerset. Documents of the NRPB, 3(4), NRPB, Oxon., 1992.
105. Miles, J. C. H., Green, B. R. M. and Lomas, P. R. Radon-affected areas: Scotland. Documents of the NRPB, 4(6), NRPB, Oxon., 1993.
106. Miles, J. C. H., Green, B. R. M. and Lomas, P. R., Radon-affected areas: Northern Ireland, Documents of the NRPB, 4(6), NRPB, Oxon., 1993.
107. NRPB. Radon-affected areas: Wales, Documents of the NRPB, 7(2), HMSO, London, 1996.
108. Scivyer, C. R., Major Alterations and Conversions: A BRE Guide to Radon Remedial Measures in Existing Dwellings. BRE report BR 267, Watford, 1994.
109. Woolliscroft, M., Scivyer, C. and Parkins, L., Field trials on the effectiveness of radon protection measures in new dwellings. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 33-40.
110. Hopke, P. K., Jensen, B., Montassier, N. and Wasiolek, P., Evaluation of room air cleaners for the reduction of exposure and dose to indoor radon progeny. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 55-60.
111. Welsh, P. A., Pye, P. W. and Scivyer, C. R., Protecting Dwellings with Suspended Timber-Floors: A BRE Guide to Radon Remedial Measures in Existing Dwellings. BRE report BR270, Watford, 1994.
112. NRPB. (date not stated). Radon Update. National Radiological Protection Board, Didcot, Oxon.
113. Blythe, A., The Local-Authority role. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1992, 42(3), 203-209.
114. DoE. The Householders' Guide to Radon. First Edition, HMSO, London, 1988.
115. DoE. The Householders' Guide to Radon. Second Edition, HMSO, London, 1990.
116. DoE. The Householders' Guide to Radon, Third Edition, HMSO, London, 1992.
117. Lomas, P., Domestic Radon Surveys: Planning and interpretation, reprinted from Radiological-Protection Bulletin, 152, NRPB, Didcot, Oxon., 1994.
118. Cliff, K. D., Naismith, S. P., Scivyer, C. and Stephen, R., The efficacy and durability of radon remedial-measures. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 65-69.
119. DoE and the Welsh Office. The Building Regulations 1991. HMSO, London, 1991.
120. DoE and the Welsh Office. The Building Regulations: Approved Document C: Site Preparation and Resistance to Moisture. HMSO, London, 1992.
121. BRE. Radon: Guidance on Protective Measures for New Dwellings. BRE report BR 211, Watford, 1991.
122. Ionising Radiation's Regulations. SI 1985 No. 1333, HMSO, London 1985.
123. Oksanen, E., Effect of ventilation type on radon concentrations at places of work. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 61-63.
124. Gregory, T., Practical experience in solving radon problems in public buildings: a range of successful solutions. Paper presented at the 'Radon in Buildings' seminar organised by the Institution of Engineers of Ireland, May 1992.
125. Gregory, T. and Stephen, R. K., Radon-reduction techniques for suspended-timber floors and pressure field extension assessment of hard-core specifications. Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 1994, 56(1-4), 71-76.
126. Lugg, A. B. and Probert, D., Mundic - a building material catastrophe. Building Construction Materials, 1996, 10(6), 467-474.
127. Lehr, J. H., The good news about radon. International Groundwater Technology, 1995, 1(7), 26-30.
128. O'Riordan, M. C., James, A. C., Green, B. M. R. and Wrixon, A. D., Exposure to Radon Daughters in Dwellings, NRPB report GS6, NRPB, Didcot, Oxon., 1987.
129. Dixon, D. W., Radon exposures in occupational buildings and the potential for dose reduction, Radiological-Protection Bulletin, 108, NRPB, Didcot, Oxon, January 1990.
130. O'Riordan, M. C., Human exposure to radon in homes: recommendations for the practical application of the Board's statement, Documents of the NRPB, 1(1), NRPB, Didcot, Oxon., 1990.
131. Radon Council. The Radon Manual, The Radon Council Ltd., London, 1992.
132. Wozniak, S. J., Handbook on Radon, Dr. S. J. Wozniak, Abbotts Langely, 1992.
133. BRE. Radon Sumps: A BRE Guide to Radon Remedial Measures in Existing Dwellings. BRE report BR 227, Watford, 1992.
134. O'Riordan, M. C. and Miles, J. C. H., (eds), Radon 2000, proceedings of a conference held in London, Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 52(3), 26-27 March 1992.
135. Campos-Venuti, G., Janssens, A., Olast, M., Peirmattei, S., Sinnaeve, J. and Tommasino, L., (eds), Indoor-radon remedial action, proceedings of the First International Workshop held in Rimini, Italy, Radiation-Protection Dosimetry, 56(1-4), 27 June-2 July 1993.
136. Pye, P. W., Sealing Cracks in Solid Floors: A BRE Guide to Radon Remedial Measures in Existing Dwellings. BRE report BR 239, Watford, 1993.
137. NRPB. Radiation Doses - Maps and Magnitudes, 2nd edn. NRPB "at a glance" series, National Radiological Protection Board, Oxon, 1994.
138. BRE. Radon and Buildings 1: Spillage of Combustion Products. BRE report XL8, Watford, 1994.
139. BRE. Radon and Buildings 2: Minimising Noise from Fan-Assisted Radon-Sump Systems. BRE report XL9, Watford, 1994.
140. BRE. Radon and Buildings 3: Protecting New Extensions and Conservatories. BRE report XL10, Watford, 1994.
141. Clavensjo, B., Radon remedial measures do not last. Swedish Building Research Journal, 1997, 1/97, 12-13.