Ultrasonic Characterization of Foods and Drinks: Principles, Methods, and Applications

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 1-46

  McClements, D Julian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS   (United States)

Author keywords

Acoustics; Analysis; On line; Physical properties; Ultrasound

Indexed keywords

ACOUSTICS; BEVERAGE; FOOD; FOOD ANALYSIS; METHODOLOGY; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; REVIEW; ULTRASOUND;

ACOUSTICS; BEVERAGES; CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL; FOOD; FOOD ANALYSIS; ULTRASONICS;

EID: 0031066037     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408399709527766     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Rizvi, S. S. H., Singh, R. K., Hotchkiss, J. H., Heldman, D. R., and Leung, H. K., Research needs in food engineering, processing and packaging. Food Technol., 47, 26S, 1993.
2. Haley, T. A. and Mulvaney, S. J., Advanced process control techniques for the food industry, Tr. Food Sci. Technol., 6, 103, 1995.
3. Kokini, J. L., Eads, T., and Ludescher, R. D., Research needs on the molecular basis for food functionality. Food Technol., 47, 36S, 1993.
4. Dickinson, E., New Physico-Chemical Techniques for the Characterization of Complex Food Systems, Chapman and Hall, London, 1995.
5. Gaonkar, A., Characterization of Foods: Emerging Methods, Elsevier, London, 1995.
6. Osborne, B. G. and Fearn, T., New-Infrared Spectroscopy in Food Analysis, Longman, Essex, 1986.
7. Simoneau, C., McCarthy, M. J., and German, J. B., Magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy for food systems. Food Res. Int., 26, 387, 1993.
8. Hills, B. P., Magnetic resonance imaging in food science, in New Physico-Chemical Techniques for the Characterization of Complex Food Systems, Dickinson, E., Ed., Chapman and Hall, London, 1995.
9. Eads, T. M. and Davis, E. A., Nuclear magnetic resonance and electron spin resonance, in Introduction to the Chemical Analysis of Foods, Nielssen, S. S., Ed., Jones and Bartlett, Boston, 1994, 381.
10. Wehling, R. L., Infrared spectroscopy, in Introduction to the Chemical Analysis of Foods, Nielssen, S. S., Ed., Jones and Bartlett, Boston, 1994, 341.
11. Javanaud, C., Applications of ultrasound to food systems, Ultrasonics, 26, 117, 1988.
12. Povey, M. J. W. and McClements, D. J., Ultrasonics in food engineering. I. Theory, J. Food Eng., 8, 271, 1988.
13. Javanaud, C. and Robins, M. M., Ultrasonic methods, in Food Process Monitoring Systems, Pinder, A. C. and Godfrey, G., Eds., Blackie Academic, Glasgow, 1993, 129.
14. McClements, D. J., Ultrasonic NDT of foods and drinks, in International Advances in Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 17, McGonnagle, W. J., Ed., Gordon and Breach, Switzerland, 1994, 63.
15. Samari, S., Ultrasound inspection method for food products, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 27, 210, 1994.
16. Suslick, K. S., Ultrasound: Its Chemical, Physical and Biological Effects, VCH, New York, 1988.
17. Ensminger, D., Ultrasonics: the Low- and High-intensity Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1973.
18. Roberts, R. T., High-intensity ultrasonics in food processing. Chem. Ind., February, 119, 1993.
19. Blitz, J., Fundamentals of Ultrasonics, Butterworths, London, 1963.
20. Gooberman, G. L., Ultrasonics: Theory and Practice, Hart, New York, 1968.
21. Beyer, R. T. and Letcher, S. V., Physical Ultrasonics, Academic Press, New York, 1969.
22. Bhatia, A. B., Ultrasonic Absorption, Dover, New York, 1967.
23. McClements, D. J., Ultrasonic characterization of emulsions and suspensions. Adv. Colloid Int. Sci., 37, 33, 1991.
24. Harker, A. H. and Temple, J. A. G., Velocity and attenuation of ultrasound in suspensions of particles in fluids, J. Phys. D, 21, 1576, 1988.
25. Li, B. and Dougherty, E. R., Size-distribution estimation in process fluids by ultrasound for particle sizes in the wavelength range, Opt. Eng., 32, 1967, 1993.
26. Allegra, J. R. and Hawley, S. A., Attenuation of ultrasound in suspensions, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 51, 1545, 1972.
27. Gaunaurd, G. C. and Uberall, H., Resonance theory of bubbly liquids, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 71, 282, 1982.
28. Thurston, R. N. and Pierce, A. D., Ultrasonic Measurement Methods, Academic Press, London, 1990.
29. McSkimin, H. J., in Physical Acoustics, Vol. IA, Mason, W. P., Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1964, 271.
30. McClements, D. J. and Fairley, P., Ultrasonic pulse echo reflectometer, Ultrasonics, 29, 58, 1991.
31. Challis, R. E., Harrison, J. A., Holmes, A. K., and Cocker, R. P., A wide bandwidth spectrometer for rapid ultrasonic absorption measurements in liquids, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 90, 730, 1991.
32. Wells, P. N. T., Pulse-echo diagnostic methods, in Medical Physics, Papali, P., Ed., Elsevier, New York, 1981, 398.
33. Greguss, P., Ultrasonic Imaging, Focal Press, London, 1980.
34. Khimunin, A. S., Numerical calculation of the diffraction corrections for the precise measurement of ultrasound phase velocity, Acustica, 32, 192, 1975.
35. Khimunin, A. S., Numerical calculation of the diffraction corrections for the precise measurement of ultrasound absorption, Acustica, 27, 173, 1972.
36. Lynworth, L. C., Ultrasonic Measurement for Process Control: Theory. Techniques and Applications, Academic Press, New York, 1989.
37. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Scattering of ultrasound by emulsions, J. Phys. D, 22, 38, 1989.
38. Hibberd, D. J., Howe, A. M., Mackie, A. R., Prudy, P. W., and Robins, M. M., Measurement of creaming profiles in oil-in water emulsions, in Food Emulsions and Foams, Dickinson, E., Ed., Royal Society of Chemistry, London, 1987.
39. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic analysis of edible fats and oils, Ultrasonics, 1993.
40. Pavlovskya, G., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic investigation of aqueous solutions of a globular protein. Food Hydrocoll., 6, 253, 1992.
41. Pavlovskya, G., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic study of the influence of dextran on the precipitation of legumin from aqueous salt solutions. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 27, 926, 1992.
42. Gekko, K. and Yamagami, Flexibility of food proteins as revealed by compressibility, J. Agric. Food Chem., 39, 57, 1991.
43. Sarvazyan, A. P., Ultrasonic velocimetry of biological compounds, Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biophys. Chem., 20, 321, 1991.
44. Gekko, K. and Noguchi, H., Compressibility of globular proteins in water at 25°C, J. Phys. Chem., 83, 2706, 1979.
45. Ogawa, T., Mizutani, K., and Yasuda, M., Volume and adiabatic compressibilities of amino acids in ureawater mixtures, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 51, 2064, 1984.
46. Millero, F. J., Surdo, A. L., and Shin, C., The apparent molal volumes and adiabatic compressibilities of aqueous amino acids at 25°C, J. Phys. Chem., 82, 784, 1978.
47. Kaulgud, M. V. and Dhodge, S. S., Apparent molal volumes and apparent molal compressibilities of some carbohydrates in dilute aqueous solutions at different temperatures, Ind. J. Chem., 27A, 6, 1988.
48. Smith, D. E. and Winder, W. C., Effects of temperature, concentration and solute structure on the acoustic properties of monosaccharide solutions, J. Food Sci., 48, 1822, 1983.
49. Freyer, E. B., Sonic studies of the physical properties of liquids. II. The velocity of sound in solutions of certain alkali halides and their compressibilities, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 53, 1313, 1931.
50. Owen, B. B. and Kronick, P. L., Standard partial molal compressibilities by ultrasonics. I. Sodium chloride and potassium chloride at 25°C, J. Phys. Chem., 61, 479, 1957; II. Sodium and potassium chlorides and bromides from 0 to 30°C. J. Phys. Chem., 65, 84, 1961.
51. Owen, B. B. and Kronick, P. L., Standard partial molal compressibilities by ultrasonics. I. Sodium chloride and potassium chloride at 25°C, J. Phys. Chem., 61, 479, 1957; II. Sodium and potassium chlorides and bromides from 0 to 30°C. J. Phys. Chem., 65, 84, 1961.
52. Pryor, A. W., Reed, R. D. C., and Richardson, E. G., The propagation of ultrasonic waves in sols and gels, in Recent Advances in Gelatin and Glue Research, Stainsby, G., Ed., Pergamon Press, London, 1958.
53. Reddy, M. A. and Suryanarayana, M., Ultrasonic absorption in aqueous solutions of starch and gelatin, Acustica, 48, 19, 1981.
54. Pethrick, R. A., Ultrasonic studies of macromolecules, Prog. Polm. Sci., 9, 197, 1983.
55. Kaatze, U., Wehrmann, B., and Pottel, R., Acoustical absorption spectroscopy of liquids between 0.15 and 3000 MHz: high-resolution ultrasonic resonator method, J. Phys. E., 21, 98, 1988.
56. Dunn, F., Edmonds, P. D., and Fry, W. J., Absorption and dispersion of ultrasound in biological media, in Biological Engineering, Schwan, H. P., Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969, 205.
57. Griffin, W. G. and Griffin, M. C. A., The attenuation of ultrasound in aqueous suspensions of casein micelles from bovine milk, 87, 2541, 1990.
58. Miles, C. A., Shore, D., and Langley, K. R., Attenuation of ultrasound in milk, Ultrasonics, 28, 394, 1990.
59. Nielssen, S. S., Introduction to the Chemical Analysis of Foods, Jones and Bartlett, Boston, 1994.
60. Contreras, N. I., Fairley, P., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Analysis of sugar content of fruit juices and drinks using ultrasound velocity measurements, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 27, 515, 1992.
61. Zacharias, E. M. and Parnell, R. A., Measuring the solids contents of foods by sound velocimetry, Food Technol., 26, 160, 1972.
62. Steele, D. J., Ultrasonics to measure the moisture content of food products, Br. J. NDT, November, 169, 1974.
63. Winder, W. C., Aulick, D. J., and Rice, A. C., An ultrasonic method for direct and simultaneous determination of alcohol and extract content of wines, Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 21, 1, 1970.
64. Forrest, I., Using sound to measure alcohol in-line during distillation, Brew. Distill. Int., 23, 34, 1992.
65. Forest, I. S. and Cuthbertson, R. C., Novel ultrasonic device for in-line measurement of sugar, alcohol and original gravity [of beer], in Proceedings of the 2nd Avimore Conference on Malting, Brewing and Distilling, 1988, 324.
66. Berchiesi, G., Amico, G., Vitali, and Amici, L., Ultrasonic investigation of aqueous solutions of sucrose, J. Mol. Liq., 33, 157, 1987.
67. Javanaud, C. and Rahalkah, R. R., Velocity of ultrasound in vegetable oils. Fat Sci. Technol., 90, 73, 1988.
68. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic velocity measurements in some liquid triglycerides and vegetable oils. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 65, 1787, 1988.
69. Pomeranz, Y., Functional Properties of Food Components, Academic Press, London, 1985.
70. Hvolby, A., Expansion of solidifying saturated fats, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 51, 50, 1974.
71. McClements, D. J., The Use of Ultrasonics for Characterizing Fats and Emulsions, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Leeds, 1988.
72. Miles, C. A., Fursey, G. A. J., and Jones, R. C. D., Ultrasonic estimation of solid/liquid ratios in fats, oils and adipose tissue, J. Sci. Food Agric., 36, 215, 1985.
73. Prentice, J. H., Measurements in the Rheology of Foodstuffs, Elsevier, London, 1984.
74. Hussin, A. B. B. H., An investigation into the use of ultrasonics to monitor phase changes and dilation in fats and oils, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Leeds, 1982.
75. Hussin, A. B. B. H. and Povey, M. J. W., A study of dilation and acoustic propagation in solidifying fats and oils: experimental, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 61, 560, 1984.
76. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Comparison of pulsed NMR and ultrasonic velocity techniques for determining solid fat contents, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 23, 159, 1988.
77. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Solid fat content determination using ultrasonic velocity measurements, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 22, 491, 1987.
78. McClements, D. J. and Povey, M. J. W., Investigation of phase transitions in glyceride/paraffin oil mixtures using ultrasonic velocity measurements, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 65, 1791, 1988.
79. McClements, D. J., Povey, M. J. W., and Dickinson, E., Absorption and velocity dispersion due to crystallization and melting of emulsion droplets, Ultrasonics, 31, 433, 1993.
80. Bulanov, V. A., Crystallization of a supercooled liquid in a sound field: steady state dynamics of crystalline-phase nuclei in the liquid, Phys. Acoust., 25, 202, 1979.
81. Akulichev, V. A. and Bulanov, V. A., Sound propagation in a crystallizing liquid, Sov. Phys. Acoust., 27, 377, 1981.
82. Kuo, H. L., Variation of ultrasonic velocity and absorption with temperature and frequency in high viscosity vegetable oils, J. Appl. Phys., 10, 167, 1971.
83. Kuo, H. L. and Weng, J. S., Temperature and frequency dependence of ultrasonic velocity and absorption in sperm and seal oils, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 52, 166, 1975.
84. Grigor'ev, S. B., Manucharov, Y. S., Mikhailov, I. G., and Khakimov, O., Acoustic relaxation in vegetable oils, Sov. Phys. Acoust., 21, 231, 1976.
85. Bhattacharya, A. and Deo, B. B., Ultrasonic propagation in coconut oil in the vicinity of phase transitions, Ind. J. Pure App. Phys., 19, 1172, 1981.
86. Gouw, T. H. and Vlugter, J. C., Ultrasonic sound velocity in lipids, Anal. Chem. Acta, 34, 175, 1966.
87. Gouw, T. H. and Vlugter, J. C., Physical properties of fatty acid methyl esters. III. Ultrasonic sound velocity, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 41, 524, 1964.
88. Gouw, T. H. and Vlugter, J. C., Physical properties of triglycerides. III. Ultrasonic sound velocity, Fette Seifen Anstrichm., 69, 159, 1967.
89. Rao, C. R., Reddy, L. C. S., and Prabhu, C. A. R., Study of adulteration in oils and fats by ultrasonic methods, Curr. Sci., 49, 185, 1980.
90. Hustad, G. O., Richardson, T., Winder, W. C., and Dean, M. P., Factors affecting sound velocity in fats and oils, J. Dairy Sci., 53, 1525, 1970.
91. Singh, N. P. and Singh, J. S., Study of the adulteration of oils and fats by ultrasonic method, Curr. Sci., 49, 185, 1980.
92. Grigor'ev, S. B., Manucharov, Y. S., Mikhailov, I. G., and Khakimov, O., Acoustic relaxation in vegetable oils, J. Sov. Phys. Acoust., 24, 331, 1976.
93. Isakovich, M. A., Propagation of sound in microscopically inhomogeneous media, Sov. Phys. Usp., 22, 928, 1979.
94. Gladwell, N., Javanaud, C., Peters, K. E., and Rahalkar, R. R., Ultrasonic behaviour of edible oils: correlation with rheology, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 62, 1231, 1986.
95. Dickinson, E. and Stainsby, G., Colloids in Food, Applied Science, London, 1982.
96. Dickinson, E. and McClements, D. J., Advances in Food Colloids, Blackie, Glasgow, 1995.
97. Howe, A. M., Mackie, A. R., and Robins, M. M., J. Sci. Technol., 7, 231, 1986.
98. Dickinson, E., Goller, M. I., McClements, D. J., Peasegood, S., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic monitoring of crystallization in an oil-in-water emulsions, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans., 86, 1147, 1990.
99. Gladwell, N., Javanaud, C., Anson, L. W., and Chivers, R. C., Measurement and interpretation of ultrasonic velocity and attenuation in low concentration polystyrene dispersions, in Ultrasonics International Conference Proceedings, 1987, 555.
100. Pinfield, V. J., Dickinson, E., and Povey, M. J. W., Modeling of concentration profiles and ultrasound profiles in a creaming emulsion: importance of scattering effects, J. Coll. Interface Sci., 166, 363, 1994.
101. Gunning, P. A., Hibberd, D. J., Howe, A. M., and Rubins, M. M., Use of ultrasound to monitor gravitational separation in dispersions, J. Soc. Dairy Technol., 42, 70, 1989.
102. McClements, D. J., Povey, M. J. W., Jury, M., and Betsanis, E., Ultrasonic characterization of a food emulsion, Ultrasonics, 27, 364, 1990.
103. Sarkar, N. and Wolfe, R. R., Potential of ultrasonic measurements in food quality, Trans. ASAE. 26, 624, 1983.
104. Manetou, A., Development of an Ultrasonic Sensor for Monitoring Air Content, Res. Rep. No. 667, Leatherhead Food R.A., 1990.
105. Fairley, P. F., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic characterization of some aerated food stuffs, Proc. Inst. Acoust., 13(2), 63, 1991.
106. Fairley, P., Ultrasonic Characterization of Aerated Foods, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Leeds, 1992.
107. Swatland, H. J., Objective assessment of meat yield and quality, Tr. Food Sci. Technol., 6, 117, 1995.
108. van Betteray, K., Acceptance quality control with ultrasound, Fleischwirtschaft, 47, 444, 1993.
109. Alliston, J. C., Kempster, A. J., Owen, M. G., and Ellis, M., An evaluation of three ultrasonic machines for predicting the body composition of live pigs of same breed, sex and live weight. Anim. Prod., 35, 165, 1982.
110. Park, B., Whittaker, A. D., Miller, R. K., and Hale, D. S., Predicting intramuscular fat in beef longissimus muscle from speed of sound. J. Anim. Sci., 72, 109, 1994.
111. Chen, S. D., Huang, C. Y., and Chen, H. J., Prediction of carcass quality in live pigs by ultrasonic measuring of backfat thickness and loin eye area. I., Taiwan Sugar, 40, 26, 1993.
112. Chen, S. D., Huang, C. Y., and Chen, H. J., Prediction of carcass quality in live pigs by ultrasonic measuring of backfat thickness and loin eye area. II., Taiwan Sugar, 41, 24, 1994.
113. Brethour, J. R., Estimating marbling score in live cattle from ultrasound images using pattern recognition and neural network procedures, J. Anim. Sci., 72, 1425, 1994.
114. Park, B. and Whittaker, A. D., Ultrasonic probe design for beef carcass scan, Trans. ASAE, 37, 965, 1994.
115. Kolb, R. and Nilter, G., Digitized ultrasonic images on live pigs for prediction of meat proportion in the belly, Zuchtungskunde, 65, 297, 1993.
116. Ophir, J., Miller, J., Ponnekauti, R. K., Cespedes, I., and Whittaker, A. D., Elastography of beef muscle, Meat Sci., 36, 239, 1994.
117. Miles, C. A. and Cutting, C. L., Technical note: changes in the velocity of ultrasound in meat during freezing, J. Food Technol., 9, 119, 1974.
118. Shore, D. and Miles, C. A., Attenuation of ultrasound in meat, Ultrasonics, 26, 31, 1988.
119. Shore, D. and Miles, C. A., Attenuation of ultrasound in suspensions of bovine muscle myofibrils and myosin, Ultrasonics, 26, 164, 1988.
120. Park, B., Whittaker, A. D., Miller, R. K., and Bray, B. E., Measuring intramuscular fat in beef with ultrasonic frequency analysis. J. Anim. Sci., 72, 117, 1994.
121. McCauley, J. D., Thane, B. R., and Whittaker, A. D., Fat estimation in beef by ultrasound images using texture and adaptive logic networks, Trans. ASAE, 37, 997, 1994.
122. Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonics in food engineering, J. Food Eng., 9, 1, 1989.
123. Hayes, C. F. and Chingon, H. T. G., Acoustic properties of papaya. Text. Stud., 13, 397, 1982.
124. Self, G. K., Chan, G., Povey, M. J. W., and Wainwright, H., Ultrasonic N.D.E. of the maturity and quality of fresh fruit and vegetables, in Ultrasonic International Conference Proceedings, 1991.
125. Mizrach, A., Galili, N., Rosenhouse, G., and Teitel, D. C., Acoustical, mechanical and quality parameters of winter grown melon tissue, Trans. ASAE, 34, 2135, 1991.
126. Garret, R. E. and Furry, R. B., Velocity of sonic pulses in apples, Trans. ASAE, 15, 770, 1972.
127. Mizrach, A., Galili, N., and Rosenhouse, G., Determination of fruit and vegetable properties by ultrasonic excitation. Trans. ASAE, 32, 2053, 1989.
128. Self, G. K., Ultrasonic determination of harvest maturity in banana, in Proceedings of the 10th ACORBAT Reunion Conference, 1991.
129. Cartensen, E. L., Biological effects of low-temporal average intensity pulsed ultrasound, Bioelectromagnetics, 3, 147, 1982.
130. McCann, J. D., A review of ultrasonic techniques and applications, with particular reference to low frequency systems and their use in the food processing industry. Rep. AERE-R 11271, U.K. Atomic Energy Authority, Harwell, 1986.
131. Self, G. K., Ordozgoti, E., Povey, M. J. W., and Wainwright, H., Ultrasonic evaluation of ripening avocado flesh, Postharv. Biol. Technol., 4, 111, 1994.
132. Liljedahl, L. A. and Abbot, J. A., Changes in sonic resonance of delicious and golden delicious apples undergoing accelerated ripening, Trans. ASAE, 37, 907, 1994.
133. Mizrach, A., Galili, N., and Rosenhouse, G., Determining quality of fresh products by ultrasonic excitation, Food Technol., 48, 68, 1994.
134. Cheng, Y. and Haugh, C. G., Detecting hollow heart in potatoes using ultrasound, Trans. ASAE, 37, 217, 1994.
135. Fitzgerald, J. W., Ringo, G. R., and Winder, W. C., An ultrasonic method for measurement of solids non-fat and butterfat in fluid milk. J. Dairy Sci., 44, 1165, 1961.
136. Bhatti, S. S., Bhatti, R., and Singh, S., Ultrasonic testing of milk, Acustica, 62, 96, 1986.
137. Ay, C. and Gunasekaran, S., Ultrasonic attenuation measurements for estimating milk coagulation time, Trans. ASAE, 37, 857, 1994.
138. Ay, C. and Gunasekaran, S., Evaluating milk coagulation time with ultrasonics. Food Technol., 48, 74, 1994.
139. Bachman, S., Klimaczak, B., and Gasyna, Z., Non-destructive viscometric studies of enzymic milk coagulation. I. An ultrasonic viscometric method for the measurement of milk clotting activity of proteolytic enzymes, Acta Alimet. Pol., 4, 55, 1978.
140. Gestrelius, H., Hertz, T. G., Nuamu, M., Persson, H. W., and Lindstrom, K., A nondestructive method for microbial quality control of aseptically packaged milk, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 26, 334, 1993.
141. Mattila, T., Ultrasound echography - a non-destructive method for quality control of packed UHT milk, in Proceedings of Symposium on Mastitis Control und Hygienic Production of Milk, 1986, 293.
142. Wirtanen, G., Ahvenainen, R., and Mattila-Sandholm, T., Nondestructive detection of spoilage of aseptically packaged milk products: effect of frequency and imaging parameters on the sensitivity of ultrasound imaging, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 25, 126, 1992.
143. Ahvenainen, R., Wirtanen, G., and Mattila-Sandholm, T., Ultrasound imaging - a nondestructive method for monitoring changes caused by microbial enzymes in aseptically packaged milk and soft ice-cream base material, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol., 24, 397, 1991.
144. Gestrelius, H., Ultrasonic doppler: a possible method for non-invasive sterility control, Food Control, 5, 103, 1994.
145. Smith, D. E. and Wittinger, S. A., Effect of sweeteners and stabilizers on the structure of ice cream mix as determined by acoustic methods, J. Food Proc. Res., 10, 227, 1986.
146. McClements, D. J., Dickinson, E., and Povey, M. J. W., Crystallization in hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions containing a mixture of solid and liquid droplets, Chem. Phys. Lett., 172, 449, 1990.
147. Dickinson, E., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic investigation of the particle size dependence of crystallization in n-hexadecane-in-water emulsions, J. Coll. Interface Sci., 142, 103, 1991.
148. McClements, D. J., Povey, M. J. W., and Dickinson, E., Ultrasonic monitoring of melting/crystallization in emulsions, in Ultrasonics International Conference Proceedings, 1991, 107.
149. Orlandi, I. and Annibaldi, S., Investigation about new techniques for the evaluation of Permigiano-Reggino cheese structure: ultrasound and X-rays, Sci. TeCn. Lattiero Casearia, 34, 20, 1983.
150. Lee, H. O. and Luan, H., Use of an ultrasonic technique to evaluate the rheological properties of cheese and dough, J. Food Eng., 16, 127, 1992.
151. Delwiche, M. J., Scott, N. R., and Drost, C. J., Ultrasonic measurement of teat milk flow, Trans. ASAE, 23, 746, 1980.
152. Caruolo, E. V. and Mochrie, R. D., J. Dairy Sci., 50, 225, 1967.
153. Martel, R., N'Soukpoe-Kossi, C. N., Paquin, P., and Leblanc, R. M., Photoacoustic analysis of some milk products in ultraviolet and visible light, J. Dairy Sci., 70, 1822, 1987.
154. Fairley, P., McClements, D. J., and Povey, M. J. W., Ultrasonic characterization of aerated foodstuffs, in Ultrasonics International Conference Proceedings, 1991, 70.
155. Gould, R. W., Nondestructive egg shell thickness measurements using ultrasonic energy. Poult. Sci., 51, 1460, 1972.
156. Voissey, P. and Hamilton, R. M. G., Ultrasonic measurement of egg shell thickness, Poult. Sci., 55, 1319, 1976.
157. Mayer, W. G. and Hiedemann, E. A., On the feasibility of ultrasonic grading of egg shells, Food Res., 24, 97, 1959.
158. Povey, M. J. W. and Wilkinson, J. M., Application of ultrasonic pulse-echo techniques to egg albumen quality, Br. J. Poult. Sci., 21, 489, 1980.
159. Vickers, Z. M. and Bourne, M. C., Crispness in foods: a review, J. Food. Sci., 1153, 1976.
160. Vickers, Z. M. and Wasserman, S. S., Sensory qualities of food sounds based on individual perceptions, J. Text. Stud., 10, 319, 1979.
161. Vickers, Z. M., Food sounds: how much information do they contain? J. Food Sci., 45, 1494, 1980.
162. Vickers, Z. M., Relationships of chewing sounds to judgements of crispness, crunchiness and hardness, J. Food Sci., 47, 121, 1982.
163. Vickers, Z. M., Crispness and crunchiness: a difference in pitch?, J. Text. Stud., 15, 157, 1984.
164. Vickers, Z. M., The relationships of pitch, loudness and eating technique to judgements of the crispness and crunchiness of food sounds, J. Text. Stud., 16, 85, 1985.
165. Vickers, Z. M., Sensory, acoustical and force-deformation measurement of potato chip crispness, J. Food Sci., 52, 138, 1987.
166. Lee, W. E., Deibel, A. E., Glembin, C. T., and Munday, E. G., Analysis of food crushing sounds during mastication: frequency-time studies, J. Text. Stud., 19, 27, 1988.
167. Tesch, R., Normand, M. D., and Peleg, M., Comparison of the acoustic and mechanical signatures of two cellular crunchy cereal foods at various water activities, J. Sci. Food Agric., in press, 1995.
168. Tesch, R., Normand, M. D., and Peleg, M., On the apparent fractal dimension of sound bursts in acoustic signatures of two crunchy foods, J. Text. Stud., in press, 1995.
169. Attenburrow, G. and Davis, A. P., The mechanical properties of cereal based foods in and around the glass state, in The Glass State in Foods, Blanshard, J. M. V. and Lillford, P. J., Eds., Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, 1993, 317.
170. Friesen, R. L., Brusewitz, and G. H., and Lowery, R. L., An acoustic method of measuring the moisture content of grain, J. Agric. Eng. Res., 39, 49, 1988.
171. Brusewitz, G. H. and Venable, P. B., Technical notes: sound level measurements of flowing grain, Trans. ASAE, 30, 863, 1987.
172. Harrenstein, A. and Brusewitz, G. H., Sound level measurements of flowing wheat, Trans. ASAE, 29, 1114, 1987.
173. Miller, R. H. and Riebe, J., Ultrasonic scanner aids predictive maintenance. Food Eng., 64, 70, 1992.
174. Sachse, W., Roget, J., and Yamaguchi, K., Acoustic Emission: Current Practice and Future Directions, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1988.
175. Povey, M. J. W. and Harden, C. A., An application of the ultrasonic pulse echo technique to the measurement of the crispness of biscuits, J. Food Technol., 16, 165, 1981.
176. Juodeikene, G., Petranskas, A., Riedl, O., and Mohr, E., Possibilities of application of ultrasonics to determination of the texture of wafer sheets, Ernahrung, 14, 507, 1990.
177. McMaster, T. J., Senouci, A., and Smith, A. C., Measurement of rheological and ultrasonic properties of food and synthetic polymer melt, Rheol. Acta, 308, 1987.
178. Povey, M. J. W. and Rosenthal, A. J., Ultrasonic detection of the degradation of starch by α-amylase, J. Food Technol., 19, 115, 1984.
179. Withers, P. M., Ultrasonics in the detection of fouling. Food Technol. Int. Eur., 96, 1994.
180. McClements, D. J., Ultrasonics in food processing, in Food Processing: Recent Developments, Gaonkar, A. G., Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1995.
181. Audebrand, M., Doublier, J. L., Durand, D., and Emery, J. R., Investigation of gelation phenomena of some polysaccharides by ultrasonic spectroscopy, Food Hydrocoll., 195, 1995.