Oral antibiotic therapy for uncomplicated bacterial skin infections in children

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 227-240

  Darmstadt, Gary L ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b SEATTLE CHILDREN S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

antibiotic; children; infection; resistance; skin; Staphylococcus aureus; Streptococcus pyogenes

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; AZITHROMYCIN; CEFACLOR; CEFADROXIL; CEFALEXIN; CEFPODOXIME; CEFPROZIL; CEFUROXIME AXETIL; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CLARITHROMYCIN; DICLOXACILLIN; ERYTHROMYCIN; LORACARBEF;

ANTHRAX; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; BLASTOMYCOSIS; CELLULITIS; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; DRUG CHOICE; ECTHYMA; ERYSIPELAS; IMPETIGO; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; PENICILLIN RESISTANCE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SKIN ABSCESS; SKIN INFECTION; STAPHYLOCOCCUS INFECTION;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CHILD; DRUG RESISTANCE, MICROBIAL; HUMANS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES; SKIN DISEASES, BACTERIAL;

EID: 0031058501     PISSN: 08913668     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199702000-00012     Document Type: Review

References (183)

1. Roth RR, James WD. Microbiology of the skin: resident flora, ecology, infection. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20:367-90.
2. Darmstadt GL. Skin and soft tissue infection: superficial infections. In: Long SS, Prober CG, Pickering LK, eds. Principles and practice of pediatric infectious disease. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996:476-85.
3. Ballantyne F. Cefadroxil in the treatment of soft tissue infections. J Int Med Res 1980(Suppl 1);8:64-9.
4. Schachner L, Taplin D, Scott GB, Morrison M. A therapeutic update of superficial skin infections. Pediatr Clin North Am 1983;30:397-404.
5. Aronoff SC, Murdell D, O'Brien CA, Klinger JD, Reed MD, Blumer JL. Efficacy and safety of ceftriaxone in serious pediatric infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983;24: 663-6.
6. Fleisher GR, Wilmott CM, Campos JM. Amoxicillin combined with clavulanic acid for the treatment of soft tissue infections in children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 24:679-81.
7. Steele RW. Ceftriaxone therapy of meningitis and serious infections. Am J Med 1984;77(Suppl 4C):50-3.
8. Jaffe AC, O'Brien CA, Reed MD, Blumer JL. Randomized comparative evaluation of Augmentin and cefaclor in pediatric skin and soft tissue infections. Curr Ther Res 1985;38: 160-8.
9. Eells LD, Mertz PM, Piovanetti Y, Pekoe GM, Eaglstein WH. Topical antibiotic treatment of impetigo with mupirocin. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:1273-6.
10. Arredondo JL. Efficacy and tolerance of topical mupirocin compared with oral dicloxacillin in the treatment of primary skin infections. Curr Ther Res 1987;41:121-7.
11. Barton LL, Friedman AD. Impetigo: a reassessment of etiology and therapy. Pediatr Dermatol 1987;4:185-8.
12. Coskey RJ, Coskey LA. Diagnosis and treatment of impetigo. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;17:62-3.
13. Rogers M, Dorman DC, Gapes M, Ly J. A three-year study of impetigo in Sydney. Med J Aust 1987;147:63-5.
14. Goldfarb J, Crenshaw D, O'Horo J, Lemon E, Blumer JL. Randomized clinical trial of topical mupirocin versus oral erythromycin for impetigo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1988;32:1780-3.
15. Barton LL, Friedman AD, Portilla MG. Impetigo contagiosa: a comparison of erythromycin and dicloxacillin therapy. Pediatr Dermatol 1988;5:88-91.
16. McLinn S. Topical mupirocin vs systemic erythromycin treatment for pyoderma. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988;7:785-90.
17. Mertz PM, Marshall DA, Eagelstein WH, Piovanetti Y, Montalvo J. Topical mupirocin treatment of impetigo is equal to oral erythromycin. Arch Dermatol 1989;125:1069-73.
18. Barton LL, Friedman AD, Sharkey AM, Schneller DJ, Swierkosz EM. Impetigo contagiosa: III. Comparative efficacy of oral erythromycin and topical mupirocin. Pediatr Dermatol 1989;6:134-8.
19. Dagan R, Bar-David Y. Comparison of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (Augmentin) for the treatment of nonbullous impetigo. Am J Dis Child 1989;143:916-8.
20. Britton JW, Fajardo JE, Krafte-Jacobs B. Comparison of mupirocin and erythromycin in the treatment of impetigo. J Pediatr 1990;117:827-9.
21. Demidovich CW, Wittier RR, Ruff ME, Bass JW, Browning WC. Impetigo: current etiology and comparison of penicillin, erythromycin, and cephalexin therapies. Am J Dis Child 1990;144:1313-5.
22. Esterly NB, Nelson DB, Dunne WM. Impetigo. Am J Dis Child 1991;145:125-6.
23. Jacobs RF, Brown WD, Chartrand S, et al. Evaluation of cefuroxime axetil and cefadroxil suspensions for treatment of pediatric skin infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:1614-8.
24. Hanfling MJ, Hausinger SA, Squires J. Loracarbef vs cefaclor in pediatric skin and skin structure infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992;11:S27-30.
25. Dagan R, Bar-David Y. Double-blind study comparing erythromycin and mupirocin for treatment of impetigo in children: implications of a high prevalence of erythromycin resistant Staphylococcus strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:287-90.
26. Rodriguez-Solares A, Perez-Gutierrez F, Prosperi J, Milgram E, Martin A. A comparative study of the efficacy, safety and tolerance of azithromycin, dicloxacillin and flueoxacillin in the treatment of children with acute skin and skin-structure infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 31(Suppl E):103-9.
27. Hebert AA, Still JG, Rueman PD. Comparative safety and efficacy of clarithromycin and cefadroxil suspensions in the treatment of mild to moderate skin and skin structure infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:S112-7.
28. Linder CW, Nelson K, Paryani S, Stallworth JR, Blumer JL. Comparative evaluation of cefadroxil and cephalexin in children and adolescents with pyodermas. Clin Ther 1993; 15:46-56.
29. Darmstadt GL, Lane AT. Impetigo: an overview. Pediatr Dermatol 1992;11:293-303.
30. Lookingbill DP. Impetigo. Pediatr Rev 1985;7:177-81.
31. Hayden GF. Skin diseases encountered in a pediatric clinic. Am J Dis Child 1985;139:36-8.
32. Tunnessen WW. A survey of skin disorders seen in pediatric general and dermatology clinics. Pediatr Dermatol 1984;1: 219-22.
33. Dillon HC. Impetigo contagiosa: suppurative and non-suppurative complications. Am J Dis Child 1968;115:530-41.
34. Leyden JJ, Kligman AM. Rationale for topical antibiotics. Cutis 1978;22:515-28.
35. Maibach H. Soft tissue infections: oral antibiotics in dermatology. In: Proceedings of the 17th Hawaii Dermatology Seminar, February 23, 1993. Stonington, ME: Caduceus. 1993:3-6.
36. Dhar S, Kanwar AJ, Kaur S, Sharma P, Ganguly NK. Role of bacterial flora in the pathogenesis and management of atopic dermatitis. Ind J Med Res 1992;95:234-8.
37. Powers RD, Schwartz R, Snow RM, Yarbrough DR. Ofloxacin versus cephalexin in the treatment of skin, skin structure, and soft-tissue infections in adults. Clin Ther 1991;13: 727-36.
38. Gentry LO, Ramirez-Ronda CH, Rodriguez-Noriega E, Thadepalli H, del Rosal PL, Ramirez C. Oral ciprofloxacin vs parenteral cefotaxime in the treatment of difficult skin and skin structure infections: a multicenter trial. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:2579-83.
39. Dominguez J, Palma F, Vega ME, et al. Prospective, controlled, randomized non-blind comparison of intravenous/ oral ciprofloxacin with intravenous ceftazidime in the treatment of skin or soft-tissue infections. Am J Med 1989; 87(Suppl 5A):136S-137S.
40. Parish LC, Jungkind DL. Systemic antimicrobial therapy in skin and skin structure infections: Comparison of texafloxacin and ciprofloxacin. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 6A):115S-119S.
41. Fass RJ, Plouffe JF, Russell JA. Intravenous/oral ciprofloxacin versus ceftazidime in the treatment of serious infections. Am J Med 1989;87(Suppl 5A):164S-168S.
42. Gentry LO, Rodriguez-Gomez G, Zeluff BJ, Khoshdel A, Price M. A comparative evaluation of oral ofloxacin versus intravenous cefotaxime therapy for serious skin and skin structure infections. Am J Med 1989;87(Suppl 6C):57S-60S.
43. Powers RD. Soft tissue infections in the emergency department: the case for the use of "simple" antibiotics. South Med J 1991;84:1313-5.
44. Neldner KH. Double-blind randomized study of oral temafloxacin and cefadroxil in patients with mild to moderately severe bacterial skin infections. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 6A):111S-114S.
45. Parish LC, Doyle CA, Durham SJ, Wilber RB. Cefprozil versus cefaclor in the treatment of mild to moderate skin and skin structure infections. Clin Ther 1992;14:458-69.
46. Tack KJ, Wilks NE, Semerdijian G, et al. Cefpodoxime proxetil in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Drugs 1991;42(Suppl 3):51-6.
47. Ballantyne F. Cefadroxil in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1982;10(Suppl B):143-7.
48. Welsh O, Saenz C. Topical mupirocin compared with oral ampicillin in the treatment of primary and secondary skin infections. Curr Ther Res 1987;41:114-20.
49. Lipsky BA, Yarbrough DR, Walker FB, Powers RD, Morman MR. Ofloxacin versus cephalexin for treating skin and soft tissue infections. Int J Dermatol 1992;311:443-5.
50. Gentry LA, Rodriguez-Gomez G. Ofloxacin treatment of difficult infections of the skin and skin structure. Cutis 1993;51:55-8.
51. Schupbach CW, Olovich KG, Dere WH. Efficacy of cefaclor AF in the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections. Clin Ther 1992;14:470-9.
52. Lentino JR, Augustinsky JB, Weber TM, Pachucki CT. Therapy of serious skin and soft tissue infections with ofloxacin administered by intravenous and oral route. Chemotherapy 1991;37:70-6.
53. Parish LC, Aten EM. Treatment of skin and skin structure infections: a comparative study of Augmentin and cefaclor. Cutis 1984;34:567-70.
54. Solomon E, McCarty JM, Mormon MR, et al. Comparison of cefprozil and amoxicillin-clavulanate potassium in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections in adults. Adv Ther 1992;9:156-65.
55. Nolen T, Conetta BJ, Durham SJ, Wilber RB. Safety and efficacy of cefprozil vs cefaclor in the treatment of mild to moderate skin and skin structure infections. Infect Med 1992;9(Suppl E):56-67.
56. Parish LC, Witkowski JA. Ceforanide compared with cefazolin in skin and soft tissue infections. Cutis 1984;33:313-9.
57. Henness DM, Gordon WE. Effective once-or twice-daily treatment of skin and skin structure infections with a new cephalosporin (cefadroxil). Postgrad Med Commun 1979; (June):41-7.
58. Dillon HC. Topical and systemic therapy for pyodermas. Int J Dermatol 1980;19:443-51.
59. Dajani AS, Ferrieri P, Wannamaker L. Endemic superficial pyoderma in children. Arch Dermatol 1973;108:517-22.
60. Dajani AS, Ferrieri P, Wannamaker LM. Natural history of impetigo: II. Etiologic agents and bacterial infections. J Clin Invest 1972;51:2863-71.
61. Hall WD, Blumberg RW, Moody MD. Studies in children with impetigo: bacteriology, serology, and incidence of glomerulonephritis. Am J Dis Child 1973;125:800-6.
62. Wannamaker LW. Differences between streptococcal infections of the throat and of the skin. N Engl J Med 1979;282: 23-31 (Part 1), 78-85 (Part 2).
63. Wannamaker LW. Differences between streptococcal infections of the throat and of the skin. N Engl J Med 1979;282: 23-31 (Part 1), 78-85 (Part 2).
64. Dagan R. Impetigo in childhood: changing epidemiology and new treatments. Pediatr Ann 1993;22:235-40.
65. Brook I. Anaerobic and aerobic bacteriology of decubitus ulcers in children. Am Surg 1980;46:624-6.
66. Brook I. Microbiological studies of decubitus ulcers in children. J Pediatr Surg 1991;26:207-9.
67. Brook I, Finegold SM. Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of cutaneous abscesses in children. Pediatrics 1981;67:891-5.
68. Brook I, Randolph JG. Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial flora of burns in children. J Trauma 1981;21:313-8.
69. Feder HM, Shanley JD, Barbera JA. Review of 59 patients hospitalized with animal bites. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987;6: 24-8.
70. Goldstein EJC. Bite wounds and infection. Clin Infect Dis 1992:633-40.
71. Brook I. Microbiology of human and animal bite wounds in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987;28:713-8.
72. Marcy SM. Infections due to dog and cat bites. Pediatr Infect Dis 1982;1:351-6.
73. Griego RD, Rosen T, Orengo IF, Wolf JE. Dog, cat, and human bites: a review. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;33:1019-29.
74. Miron D, Raz R, Kaufman B, Fridus B. Infections following nail puncture wound of the foot: case reports and review of the literature. Isr J Med Sci 1993;29:194-7.
75. Jacobs RF, McCarthy RE, Elser JM. Pseudomonas osteochondritis complicating puncture wounds of the foot in children: a 10-year evaluation. J Infect Dis 1989;160:657-61.
76. Meislin HW, Lerner SA, Graves MH, et al. Cutaneous abscesses: anaerobic and aerobic bacteriology and outpatient management. Ann Intern Med 1977;87:145-9.
77. O'Brien TF. Global surveillance of antibiotic resistance. N Engl J Med 1992;326:339-40.
78. Nakae M, Murai T, Kaneko Y, Mitsuhashi S. Drug resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes isolated in Japan (1974-1975). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1977;12:427-8.
79. Maruyama S, Yoshioka H, Fujita K, Takimoto M, Satake Y. Sensitivity of group A streptococci to antibiotics. Am J Dis Child 1979;133:1143-5.
80. Miyamoto Y, Takizawa K, Matsushima A, Asai Y, Nakatsuka S. Stepwise acquisition of multiple drug resistance by streptococci and difference in resistance patterns by type. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1978;31:399-404.
81. Holmstrom L, Nyman B, Rosengren M, et al. Outbreaks of infections with erythromycin-resistant group A streptococci in child care centers. Scand J Infect Dis 1990;22:179-85.
82. Seppala H, Nissinen A, Jarvinen H, et al. Resistance to erythromycin in group A streptococci. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:292-7.
83. Fujita K, Murono K, Yoshikawa M, Murai T. Decline of erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci in Japan. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:1075-8.
84. Nishijima S, Namura S, Kawai S, Akamatsu H, Asada Y, Kawabata S. Sensitivity of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from skin infections in 1992 to antimicrobial agents. J Dermatol 1994;21:233-8.
85. Coonan KM, Kaplan EL. In vitro susceptibility of recent North American group A streptococcal isolates to eleven oral antibiotics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:630-5.
86. Ohana N, Keness J, Verner E, Raz R, Rozenman D, Zuckerman F. Skin-isolated, community acquired Staphylococcus aureus: in vitro resistance to methicillin and erythromycin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:544-6.
87. Misko ML, Terracina JR, Diven DG. The frequency of erythromycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in impetiginized dermatoses. Pediatr Dermatol 1995;12:12-5.
88. Akiyama H, Yamada T, Simoe K, Kanzaki H, Arata J. Characteristic and susceptibilities to antimicrobial agents of Staphylococcus aureus isolates isolated in dermatology. Chemotherapy (Jpn) 1990;38:9-20.
89. Nishijima S, Namura S, Mitsuya K, Asada Y. The incidence of isolation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains from skin infections during the past three years (1989-1991). J Dermatol 1993;20:193-7.
90. Cookson BD. Mupirocin resistance in staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25:497-503.
91. Smith GE, Kennedy CTC. Staphylococcus aureus resistant to mupirocin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1988;21:141-2.
92. Rahman M, Noble WC, Cookson B. Transmissible mupirocin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Epidemiol Infect 1989; 102:261-70.
93. Moy JA, Caldwell-Brown D, Lin AN, Pappa KA, Carter DM. Mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after long term treatments of patients with epidermolysis bullosa. J Am Acad Dermatol 1990;22:893-5.
94. Connolly S, Noble WC, Phillips I. Mupirocin resistance in coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Med Microbiol 1993: 450-3.
95. Eady EA, Cove JH. Topical antibiotic therapy: current status and future prospects. Drugs Exp Clin Res 1990;26: 423-33.
96. Bradley SF, Ramsey MA, Morton TM, Kauffman CA. Mupirocin resistance: clinical and molecular epidemiology. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:354-8.
97. Cookson BD, Lacey RW, Noble WC, Reeves DS, Wise R, Redhead RJ. Mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 1990;335:1095-6.
98. Dahlberg PS, Sielaff TD, Dunn DL. Emerging resistance in staphylococci and enterococci. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1996;5(2 Suppl):S49-56.
99. Janssen DA, Zarins LT, Schaberg DR, Bradley SF, Terpenning MS, Kauffman CA. Detection and characterization of mupirocin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:2003-6.
100. McCraig LF, Hughes JM. Trends in antimicrobial drug prescribing among office-based physicians in the United States. JAMA 1995;273:214-9.
101. Phelps CE. Bug/drug resistance: sometimes less is more. Med Care 1989;27:194-203.
102. Ehrenkranz NJ, Alfonso BC. Failure of bland soap handwash to prevent hand transfer of patient bacteria to urethral catheters. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12: 654-62.
103. Blumer JL, O'Brien CA, Lemon E, Capretta TM. Skin and soft tissue infections: pharmacologic approaches. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1985;4:336-41.
104. Blumer JL, Lemon E, O'Horo J, Snodgrass DJ. Changing therapy for skin and soft tissue infections in children: have we come full circle? Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987;6:117-22.
105. Ballow CH. Cost considerations in oral antibiotic therapy. Adv Ther 1995;12:199-206.
106. Nightingale CH, Belliveau PP, Quintiliani R. Cost issues and considerations when choosing antimicrobial agents. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1994;3:8-11.
107. Nelson JD. Clinical importance of compliance and patient tolerance. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1995;4(Suppl 2):S95-7.
108. Ruff ME, Schotik DA, Bass JW, Vincent JM. Antimicrobial drug suspensions: a blind comparison of taste of fourteen common pediatric drugs. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10:30-3.
109. Klempner MS, Styrt B. Prevention of recurrent staphylococcal skin infections with low-dose oral clindamycin therapy. JAMA 1988;260:2682-5.
110. Dillon HC, Derrick CW. Clinical experience with clindamycin hydrochloride: I. Treatment of streptococcal and mixed streptococcal-staphylococcal skin infections. Pediatrics 1975;55:205-12.
111. Wilson DH. Clindamycin in the treatment of soft tissue infections: a review of 15 019 patients. Br J Surg 1980;67: 93-6.
112. Gilbert DN. Aspects of the safety profile of oral antibacterial agents. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1995;4(Suppl 2)S103-12.
113. Neu HC. Oral beta-lactam antibiotics from 1960 to 1994. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1995;4(Suppl 2):S39-49.
114. Rodriguez WJ, Wiedermann BL. The role of newer oral cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides in the treatment of pediatric infections. Adv Pediatr Infect Dis 1994;9:125-59.
115. Quintiliani R, Nightingale CH, Freeman CD. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations in antibiotic selection, with particular attention to oral cephalosporins. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1995;4(Suppl 2):S58-63.
116. Anderson JA. Cross-sensitivity to cephalosporins in patients allergic to penicillin. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1986;5:557-61.
117. Levine LR. Quantitative comparison of adverse reactions to cefaclor vs amoxicillin in a surveillance study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1985;4:358-61.
118. Heckert SR, Stryker WS, Collin KL, Manson JE, Platt R. Serum sickness in children after antibiotic exposure: estimates of occurrence and morbidity in a health maintenance organization population. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:336-42.
119. Vogelman B, Gudmundsson S, Leggett J, Turnidge J, Ebert S, Craig WA. Correlation of antimicrobial pharmacokinetic parameters with therapeutic efficacy in animal model. J Infect Dis 1988;158:831-47.
120. Gerber AU. Impact of the antibiotic dosage schedule on efficacy in experimental soft tissue infections. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl 1991;74:147-54.
121. Wise R. The pharmacokinetics of the oral cephalosporins: a review. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;26(Suppl E):13-20.
122. Bernhardt LL. Tissue and fluid concentration of cefadroxil monohydrate. J Int Med Res 1980;8(Suppl 1):58-63.
123. Hains CS, Johnson SE, Nelson KG. Once daily cefadroxil therapy for pyoderma. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989;8:648-9.
124. McCraken GH, Ginsburg CM, Clahsen JC, et al. Pharmacologic evaluation of orally administered antibiotics in infants and children: effect of feeding on bioavailability. Pediatrics 1978;62:738-43.
125. Derrick CW, Reilly K. The role of cephalexin in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Postgrad Med J 1983;59(Suppl 5):43-6.
126. DiMattia AF, Sexton MJ, Smialowicz CR, et al. Efficacy of two dosage schedules of cephalexin in dermatologic infections. J Fam Pract 1981;12:649-52.
127. Dillon HC Jr. Treatment of staphylococcal skin infections: a comparison of cephalexin and dicloxacillin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1983;8:177-81.
128. Jones RN, Barry AL. BMY-28100, a new oral cephalosporin: antimicrobial activity against nearly 7000 recent clinical isolates, comparative potency with other oral agents, and activity against beta-lactamase producing isolates. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1988;9:11-26.
129. Ritchie DJ, Hopefl AW, Milligan TW, Bryne JE, Maddux MS. In vitro activity of clarithromycin, cefprozil, and other common oral antimicrobial agents against Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. Clin Ther 1993;15:107-13.
130. Stutman HR, Arguedas AG. Comparison of cefprozil with other antibiotic regimens in the treatment of children with acute otitis media. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14(Suppl 2):S204-8.
131. Therasse DG. The safety profile of loracarbef: clinical trials in respiratory, skin, and urinary tract infections. Am J Med 1992;92(Suppl 6A):S20-6.
132. Saez-Llorens X, Shyu WL, Shelton S, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cefprozil in infants and children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:2152-5.
133. Barbhaiya RH, Shukla UA, Gleason CR, Shyu WC, Wilber RB, Pittman KA. Comparison of cefprozil and cefaclor pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:1204-9.
134. Wachs G, Rogan MP. Cefprozil vs erythromycin for mild to moderate skin and skin structure infections. Infect Med 1992;9(Suppl E):57-65.
135. Nolen TM. Clinical trials of cefprozil for treatment of skin and skin-structure infections: review. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14(Suppl 2):S255-63.
136. Ginsburg CM, McCracken GH, Petruska M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and bactericidal activity of cefuroxime axetil. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985;28:504-7.
137. Powell DA, James NL, Ossi MJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of cefuroxime axetil suspension in infants and children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:1940-2.
138. Gooch WM, Kaminester L, Cole GW, et al. Clinical comparison of cefuroxime axetil, cephalexin and cefadroxil in the treatment of patients with primary infections of the skin or skin structures. Dermatologica 1991;183:36-43.
139. Parish LC, Cocchietto DM, Werner K, Jungkind DL, Witkowski J. Cefuroxime axetil in t he treatment of cutaneous infections. Int J Dermatol 1987;26:389-93.
140. Gudgeon AC, Vandenburg MJ, Wight LJ, Griffiths GK, Kelsey M. Is oral cefuroxime axetil suitable for the treatment of unidentified bacterial infection of skin and soft tissue? Br J Clin Pract 1987;41:954-6.
141. Watts HF, Williams AH, Cox DM. A pilot study of cefuroxime axetil (Zinnat) and Augmentin in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections in general practice. Clin Trials J 1987;24:356-62.
142. Gentry LO. Therapy with newer oral beta-lactam and quinolone agents for infections of the skin and skin structure infections: a review. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:285-97.
143. Goldfarb J. New antimicrobial agents. Pediatr Clin North Am 1995;42:717-35.
144. Brogden RN, McTavish D. Loracarbef: a review of its antimicrobial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy. Drugs 1993;45:716-36.
145. Doern G. In vitro activity of loracarbef and effects of susceptibility test methods. Am J Med 1992;92(Suppl 6A):7S-15S.
146. Gan VN, Squires JE, Phillips DL. Comparative treatment trial of loracarbef vs cefaclor for skin infections [Abstract 1275]. Presented at the 30th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Atlanta, GA, October 24, 1990.
147. McCarty J, Ruoff GE, Jacobson KD. Loracarbef (LY163892) versus cefaclor in the treatment of bacterial skin and skin structure infections in an adult population. Am J Med 1992;92(Suppl 6A):80S-85S.
148. Zolfino I, Senesi S, Campa M, et al. Human skin disposition of cefpodoxime after oral administration of its proxetil ester. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992;30:731-3.
149. Borin MT, Hughes GS, Spillers, Patel RK. Pharmacokinetics of cefpodoxime in plasma and skin blister fluid following oral dosing of cefpodoxime proxetil. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990;34:1094-9.
150. Yura J, Shinagana K, Mizuno, et al. Clinical evaluation of CS-807 in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections: a double blind comparison of CS-807 and cefaclor. Jpn J Antibiot 1988;41:1517-37.
151. Stevens DL, Pien F, Drehobl M. Comparison of oral cefpodoxime proxetil and cefaclor in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;16: 123-9.
152. Fujii R. Clinical trials of cefpodoxime proxetil suspension in pediatrics. Drugs 1991;42(Suppl 3):57-60.
153. Barza M, Eisenberg E. Clarithromycin and azithromycin. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1996;5:291-302.
154. Hoover WW, Barrett MS, Jones RN. Clarithromycin in vitro activity enhanced by its major metabolite, 14-hydroxyclarithromycin. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1992;15:259-66.
155. Ishiguro M, Koga H, Kohno S, et al. Penetration of macrolides into human polymorphonuclear leucocytes. J Antimicrob Chemother 1989;24:719-29.
156. Chu S, Park B, Looke C, Wilson D, Cavanaugh J. Drug-food interaction potential of clarithromycin, a new macrolide antimicrobial. J Clin Pharmacol 1992;32:32-6.
157. Hardy DJ, Guay DRP, Jones RN. Clarithromycin, a unique macrolide: a pharmacokinetic, microbiological, and clinical overview. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1992;15:39-53.
158. Neu HC. The development of macrolides: clarithromycin in perspective. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991;27(Suppl A):1-11.
159. Guay DR, Craft JC. Overview of the pharmacology of clarithromycin suspension in children and a comparison with that in adults. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12(Suppl 3):S106-11.
160. Periti P, Mazzei T, Mini E, Novelli A. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions of macrolides. Clin Pharmacokinet 1992;23: 106-31.
161. Honig PK, Wortham DC, Zamani K, Cantilena LR. Comparison of the effect of the macrolide antibiotics erythromycin, clarithromycin and azithromycin on terfenadine steady-state pharmacokinetics and electrocardiographic parameters. Drug Invest 1994;7:148-56.
162. Siepman N, Blahunka KS, Harris SI, et al. ECG changes observed following multiple dose co-administration of clarithromycin and terfenadine. Pharm Res 1993;10:S354.
163. Gustavson L, Chu J. Drug interactions between clarithromycin and oral zidovudine in HIV-1 infected patients [Abstract]. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993;53:PI-114.
164. Petty B, Polis M, Haneiwich S, Dellerson M, Draft JC, Chaisson R. Pharmacokinetic assessment of clarithromycin plus zidovudine in HIV patients. In: Proceedings and Abstracts of the 32nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Anaheim, CA, October 11 to 14, 1992. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1992:24.
165. Husson RN, Ross LA, Sandelli S, et al. Orally administered clarithromycin for the treatment of systemic Mycobacterium avium complex infection in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Pediatr 1994;124:807-14.
166. Parish LC. Clarithromycin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections: two multicenter clinical trials. Int J Dermatol 1993;32:528-32.
167. Craft JC, Siepman N. Overview of the safety profile of clarithromycin suspension in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:S142-7.
168. Foulds G, Shepard RM, Johnson RB. The pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in human serum and tissues. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25(Suppl A):73-82.
169. Williams JD, Sefton AM. Comparison of macrolide antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31(Suppl C):11-26.
170. McDonald PJ, Pruul H. Phagocyte uptake and transport of azithromycin. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1991;10:828-33.
171. Hopkins SJ. Clinical toleration and safety of azithromycin. Am J Med 1991;91:(Suppl 3A):40S-55S.
172. Harris S, Hilligoss DM, Colangelo PM, Eller M, Okerholm R. Azithromycin and terfenadine: lack of drug interaction. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995;58:310-15.
173. Hopkins SJ. Clinical toleration and safety of azithromycin in adults and children. Rev Contemp Pharmacother 1994;5: 383-9.
174. Hopkins SJ, Williams D. Clinical tolerability and safety of azithromycin in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14:S67-71.
175. Amaya-Tapia G, Aguirre-Avalos G, Andrade-Villanueva J, et al. Once-daily azithromycin in the treatment of adult skin and skin structure infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993;31(Suppl E):129-35.
176. Lassus A. Comparative studies of azithromycin in skin and soft-tissue infections and sexually transmitted infections by Neisseria and Chlamydia species. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25:(Suppl 1):115-21.
177. Daniel R. Azithromycin, erythromycin and cloxaxillin in the treatment of infections of skin and associated soft tissues. J Int Med Res 1991;19:433-45.
178. Kiani R. Double-blind, double-dummy comparison of azithromycin and cephalexin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1991;10:880-4.
179. Mallory SB. Azithromycin compared with cephalexin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections. Am J Med 1991;91(Suppl 3A):36S-39S.
180. 90 and eradication of naspharyngeal carriage of bacteria. J Infect Dis 1990;162:1124-7.
181. Sheagren JN. Staphylococcus aureus: the persistent pathogen. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1437-2.
182. Wheat LJ, Kohler RB, Luft FC, White A. Long-term studies of the carriers of coagulase-positive staphylococci. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5(Suppl 3):S459-62.
183. Sande MA, Mandell GL. Effect of rifampin on nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1975;7:294-7.