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For further details on the optimal development of cultured embryos and for the technique of lipofection in conjunction with phosphorothioate oligonucleotide treatment used in most of our experiments, see D. A. T. New, J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 3, 326 (1955); J. Cooke and A. Isaac, in Molecular Embryology: Methods and Protocols, P. Sharpe and I. Mason, Eds. (Humana, Totowa, NJ, in press). Lipofectamine (Gibco-BRL) was used with lipid:DNA molar ratios recommended as for transfection. All oligonucleotide DNA, chemically modified for nuclease resistance, was supplied by Oligos Etc. (Wilsonville, OR).
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1842391100
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note
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Oligonucleotide sequences that had no effect at concentrations up to 80 μmol included the following: the corresponding sense ones, those identical with the antisense ones except for internal six-base 5′-3′ reversals, a random sequence mixture (8), and several antisense oligonucleotides to chick brachyury, noggin, and follistatin sequence targets. Antisense chick Slug oligonucleotides giving the previously reported abnormalities (8) had no effect on heart, embryo torsion, or somite development. Phosphorothioate oligonucleotides may act by RNA message degradation or translational arrest, or both [see, for example, K.-H. Schlingensiepen and W. Brysch, in Gene Regulation: Biology of Antisense RNA and DNA, R. Erickson and J. Izant, Eds. (Raven Press, New York, 1992), pp. 317-328]. The identical antisense cSnR oligonucleotide sequences as p-ethoxy DNA, which has different pH and charge properties in our system, give identical specific effects at comparable concentrations. This further supports the evidence that effects are gene sequence-specific, because occasional chemically mediated, sequence-conditioned (but not gene sequence-conditioned) effects of thioated DNAs have been reported
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Extra fissures divide off lateral bodies, which form their own epithelial somites out of series with the main file, in anterior parts of the somite series. cSnR expression is dynamic in and near lateral parts of the nascent somite cross section.
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After extirpation of heart territories in ring-cultured stage 8-9 embryos (that is, before any macroscopic, structural heart asymmetry has occurred), the axis, which has no heart yet, twists in the normal direction with about normal reliability. This suggests that torsion is potentially an independent manifestation of handed information in embryos. The frequent reversal, delay, and other disturbances to torsion in our antisense cSnR-treated situs inversus embryos therefore suggest that the lateral cSnR expression component may control torsion too [though see (5)].
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We used Affigel beads, because optimal results have been obtained in other work with these as ectopic sources of both soluble Shh protein and the TGF-β (activin)-related bone morphogenetic proteins. We confirmed randomization of heart looping (6) using these beads with both Shh and activin.
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1842314851
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note
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We have also incubated whole streak-stage blastoderms for 2 hours in either 20 Xenopus animal cap units (2 to 4 ng/ml) of recombinant activin A protein or the activin antagonist follistatin protein (2 μg/ml) (courtesy of the National Pituitary and Hormone Repository, Rockville, MD) before returning them to culture. Such global treatments might be expected to obliterate early asymmetry in the intensity of function in an activin or related ligand-receptor system. Either treatment causes abnormal morphological symmetry in the stage 6 node 5 hours later and, ultimately, embryos with hearts of reduced or unlateralized looping as opposed to randomized handedness. This adds to the evidence that an activin-related pathway is fundamental to the transmission of left-right information during gastrulation.
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1842303470
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note
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We thank A. Nieto, Instituto Cajal, Madrid, for the complete cSnR cDNA; M. Levin and C. Tabin, Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, for the chick nodal (cNR-1) plasmid; H. Roelink, T. Jessell, and M. Placzek for hedgehog protein; and Oligos Etc. Incorporated for extendeded advice and test samples.
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