Novel growth hormone secretagogues: Clinical applications

Endocrinologist

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 51-64

  Bercu, Barry B ^a,b   Walker, Richard F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS ALL CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING FACTOR DERIVATIVE; HEXARALIN; HISTIDYL DEXTRO TRYPTOPHYLALANYLTRYPTOPHYL DEXTRO PHENYLALANYLLYSINAMIDE; IBUTAMOREN; L 429; L 585; L 692; L 700; SPIROPIPERIDINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AGING; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDICATION; GROWTH HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; PROLACTINOMA; REVIEW; SHORT STATURE; TREATMENT PLANNING;

EID: 0031049744     PISSN: 10512144     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00019616-199707010-00008     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Reichlin S: Growth hormone content of pituitaries from rats with hypothalamic lesions. Endocrinology 1961; 69: 225-30.
2. Guillemin R, Brazeau P, Bohlen P, Esch P, Ling N, Wehrenberg WB: Growth hormone-releasing factor from a human pancreatic tumor that caused acromegaly. Science 1982; 218: 585-7.
3. Rivier J, Spiess J, Thorner M, Vale W: Characterization of a growth hormone-releasing factor from a human pancreatic islet tumor. Nature 1982; 300: 276-8.
4. Thorner NO, Rivier J, Spiess J, et al.: Human pancreatic growthhormone-releasing factor selectively stimulates growth hormone secretion in man. Lancet 1983; 1: 24-8.
5. Tannenbaum GR: Physiologic relevance of somatostatin in growth hormone regulation. In Somatostation, edited by Reichlin S, p. 169-82. New York, Plenum 1987.
6. 2)-GRF(1-29)-NH2 as a GRF antagonist on membranes. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 1759-64.
7. Bowers CY, Momamy F, Reynolds GA, Chang D, Hong A, Chang K: Structure-activity relationships of a synthetic pentapeptide that specifically releases growth hormone in vitro. Endocrinology 1980; 106: 663-7.
8. Momamy FA, Bowers CY, Reynolds GA, Chang D, Hong A, Newlander K: Design, synthesis, and biological activity of peptides which release growth hormone in vitro. Endocrinology 1982; 108: 31-9.
9. Bercu BB, Diamond FB: Growth hormone neurosecretory dysfunction. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 15: 537-90.
10. Codd EE, Shu AYL, Walker RF: Binding of a growth hormone releasing hexapeptide to specific hypothalamic and pituitary binding sites. Neuropharmacology 1989; 28: 1139-44.
11. 2 in rats, dogs and monkeys. Life Sci 1991; 47: 29-36.
12. Bowers CY, Alster DK, Prentz JM: The growth hormone-releasing activity of a synthetic hexapeptide in normal men and short statured children after oral administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 74: 292-8.
13. Smith RG, Cheng K, Schoen WR, et al.: A nonpeptidyl growth hormone secretagogue. Science 1993; 260: 1640-3.
14. Patchett AA, Nargund RP, Tata JR, et al.: Design and biological activities of L-163, 191 (MK-0677): a potent, orally active growth hormone secretagogue. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 136: 5694-9.
15. Elias KA, Ingle GS, Burnier JP, et al.: In vitro characterization of four novel classes of growth hormone-releasing peptide. Endocrinology 1995; 136: 5694-9.
16. Badger TM, Millard WJ, McCormick GF, Bowers CY, Martin JB: The effects of growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptides in perifused pituitary cell of adult male rats. Endocrinology 1984; 115: 1432-8.
17. McCormick GF, Millard WJ, Badger TM, Bowers CY, Martin JB: Dose-response characteristics of various peptides with growth hormone-releasing activity in the unanesthetized male rat. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 97-105.
18. 2 on growth hormone-releasing factor-stimulated GH release and intracellular 3,′S′-monophosphate accumulation in rat primary pituitary cell culture. Endocrinology 1989; 114: 2791-8.
19. 2 stimulates growth hormone release through distinct receptor sites. J Endocrinol 1991; 129: 11-9.
20. Bowers CY, Reynolds GA, Durham D, Barrera CM, Pezzoli SS, Thomer MO: Growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide stimulates GH release in normal men and acts synergistically with GH-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 70: 975-82.
21. Bercu BB, Yang S-W, Masuda K, Walker RF: Role of selected endogenous peptides in growth hormone releasing hexapeptide (GHRP-6) activity. Analysis of GHRH, TRH and GnRH. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 2579-86.
22. Goth MI, Lyons CE, Canny BJ, Thorner MO: Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide, growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide and GH-releasing hormone stimulate GH release through distinct pituitary receptors. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 939-44.
23. 10] human growth hormone-releasing factor (1-44) amide binding to rat pituitary: evidence for high and low affinity classes of sites. Brain Res 1990; 528: 291-9.
24. Abribat T, Desiauriers N, Brazeau P, Gaudreau P: Alterations of pituitary growth hormone-releasing factor binding sites in aging rats. Endocrinology 1991; 128: 633-5.
25. Sethumadhavan K, Veeraragavan K, Bowers CY: Demonstration and characterization of the specific binding of growth hormone-releasing peptide to rat anterior pituitary and hypothalamic membranes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 178: 31-7.
26. Jansson J-O, Downs TR, Beamer WG, Frohman LA: Receptor-associated resistance to growth hormone-releasing factor in dwarf "little" mice. Science 1986; 232: 511-2.
27. Downs TR, Frohman LA: Evidence for a defect in growth hormonereleasing factor signal transduction in the dwarf (dw/dw) rat pituitary. Endocrinology 1991; 129: 58-67.
28. Lei T, Buchfelde M, Fahlbusch R, Adams EF: Growth hormone releasing peptide (GHRP-6) stimulates phosphatidylinositol (PI) turnover in human pituitary somatotroph cells. J Endocrinol 1995; 14: 135-8.
29. Adams EF, Peterson B, Lei T, Buchfelder M, Fahlbrusch R: The growth hormone secretagogue L-692-429, induces phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis and hormone secretion by human pituitary tumors. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995; 208: 555-61.
30. Bresson-Bepoldin L, Odessa MF, Dufy-Barbe L: GHRP-6 stimulates calcium increase and growth hormone release in human somatotrophs in vitro. Endocr J 1994; 2: 793-803.
31. Renner U, Brockmeier S, Strasburger CJ, et al.: Growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide stimulation of GH release from human somatotroph adenoma cells: interaction with GH-releasing, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and octreotide. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 1090-6.
32. Sugden D, Klein DC: Adrenergic stimulation of rat pineal hydroxyindole-o-methyltransferase. Brain Res 1983; 265: 348-51.
33. Klein DC, Sugden D, Weller JL: Postsynaptic alpha-adrenergic stimulation of pineal serotonin N-acetyltransferase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80: 599-603.
34. Sugden D, Klein DC: Beta-adrenergic receptor control of rat pineal hydroxyindole-o-methyltransferase. Endocrinology 1983; 113: 348-53.
35. Smith RG, Long S-S, Hickey G, et al.: Modulation of pulsatile GH release through a novel receptor in hypothalamic and pituitary gland. Rec Prog Horm Res 1997; (in press).
36. Bach MA, Chapman I, Farmer M, et al.: An orally active growth hormone secretagogue (MK-0677) increases pulsatile GH secretion and circulating IGF-I in healthy elderly. Tenth International Congress of Endocrinology 1996; 71 (abstract OR15-2).
37. Cho KH, Yang SW, Hu C-S, Bercu BB: Growth hormone (GH) response to growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) varies with intrinsic growth hormone secretory rhythm in children: can somatostatin pretreatment reduce this variability? J Pediatr Endocrinol 1992; 5: 155-65.
38. Devesa J, Lima L, Lois N, et al.: Reasons for the variability in growth hormone (GH) responses to GHRH challenge: the endogenous hypothalamic-somatotroph rhythm (HSR). Clin Endocrinol 1989; 30: 367-77.
39. Canonico PL, Speciale C, Sortino MA, Cronin MJ, MacLeod RM, Scapagniri U: Growth hormone releasing factor (GRF) increases arachidonate levels in the pituitary: a role for lipoxygenase products. Life Sci 1986; 38: 267-72.
40. French MB, Lussier BT, Moor BC, Kraicer J: Effect of growth hormone-releasing factor on phosphoinositide hydrolysis in somatotrophs. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1990; 72: 221-6.
41. Clark RG, Carlsson LMS, Trojnar J, Robinson ICAF: The effects of a growth hormone-releasing peptide and growth hormone-releasing factor in conscious and anaesthetized rats. J Neuroendocrinol 1989; 1: 249-55.
42. Carlsson LMS, Clark RG, Robinson ICAF: Sex differences in growth hormone feedback in the rat. J Endocrinol 1990; 126: 27-35.
43. Spiliotis B, August G, Hung W, Sonis W, Mendelson W, Bercu BB: Growth hormone neurosecretory dysfunction: a treatable cause of short stature. JAMA 1984; 251: 2223-30.
44. Bercu BB: Growth hormone neurosecretory dysfunction: update. In Basic and Clinical Aspects of Growth Hormone, edited by Bercu BB, 119-41. New York, Plenum, 1988.
45. 2: an aid in the differential diagnosis between hypothalamic and pituitary deficiencies. J Pediatr Endocrinol 1994; 7: 309-16.
46. Popovic V, Damjanovic S, Micic D, Djurovic M, Dieguez C, Casaneuva FF: Blocked growth hormone-releasing peptide (GHRHP-6)-induced GH secretion and absence of the synergic action of GHRP-6 plus GH-releasing hormone in patients with hypothalamopituitary disconnection: evidence that GHRP-6 main action is exerted at the hypothalamic level. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 942-7.
47. Shibasaki T, Shizume K, Nahahara M, et al.: Age-related changes in plasma growth hormone response to growth hormone-releasing factor in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 58: 212-4.
48. Sonntag WE, Forman LJ, Miki N, et al.: Effects of CNS active drugs and somatostatin antiserum on growth hormone release in young and old male rats. Neuroendocrinology 1981; 33: 73-8.
49. Sonntag WE, Gough MA: Growth hormone releasing hormone induced release of growth hormone in aging male rats: dependence on pharmacological manipulation of endogenous somatostatin release. . Neuroendocrinology 1988; 47: 482-8.
50. Takahashi S, Gottshall PE, Quigley KL, Goya RG, Meites J: Growth hormone secretory patterns in young, middle-aged and old female rats. Neuroendocrinology 1987; 46: 137-42.
51. Sonntag WE, Steger RW, Forman LJ, Meites J: Decreased pulsatile release of growth hormone in old male rats. Endocrinology 1980; 107: 1875-9.
52. Ghigo E, Goffi S, Arvat E, et al.: Pyridostigmine partially restores the GH responsiveness to GHRH in normal aging. Acta Endocrinol 1990; 123: 169-74.
53. Ge F, Tsagarakis S, Rees LH, Besser GM, Grossman A: Relationship between growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin in the rat: effects of age and sex on content and in-vitro release from hypothalamic expiants. J Endocrinology 1989; 123: 53-8.
54. Goth MI, Lyons CE, Canny BJ, Thorner MO: Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide, growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide and GH-releasing hormone stimulate GH release through distinct pituitary receptors. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 939-44.
55. Jaffe CA, Ho PJ, DeMott Friberg R, Bowers CY, Barkan AL: Effect of prolonged growth hormone-releasing peptide infusion on GH secretion in normal men. Presented at the Endocrine Society annual meeting, 1992, San Antonio, Texas, p. 169.
56. DeBell WK, Pezzoli SS, Thorner MO: Growth-Hormone (GH) secretion during continuous infusion of GH-releasing peptide: partial response attenuation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 72: 1312-6.
57. Pombo M, Barreiro J, Penalva A, Peino R, Dieguez C, Casaneuva FF: Absence of growth hormone (GH) secretion after the administration of either GH-releasing hormone (GHRH), GH-releasing peptide (GHRP-6), or GHRH plus GHRP-6 in children with neonatal pituitary stalk transection. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 3180-4.
58. Fahlbusch R: Surgical treatment of pituitary adenomas. In The Pituitary edited by Beardwell C, Robertson GL, p. 76. London, Buttenvorths, 1981.
59. Teasdale GM: Surgical management of pituitary adenoma. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 12: 789-823.
60. Wakai S, Fukushima T, Teramoto A, Sano K: Pituitary apoplexy: its incidence and clinical significance. J Neurosurg 1981; 55: 187-93.
61. Ambrosi B, Giovine C, Nava C, Elli R, Faglia G: Serum gonadotrophin pulsatile secretion in men with Prl-secreting and non-secreting pituitary tumors. Acta Endocrinol 1985; 109: 1-6.
62. Moult PJA, Rees LH, Besser GM: Pulsatile gonadotrophin secretion in hyperprolactinemic amenorrhoea and the response to bromocriptine therapy. Clin Endocrinol 1982; 16: 153-62.
63. Bevan JS, Adams CBT, Burke CW, et al.: Factors in the outcome of transsphenoidal surgery for prolactinoma and non-functioning tumor, including pre-operative bromocriptine therapy. Clin Endocrinol 1987; 26: 541-56.
64. Nabarro JDN: Pituitary prolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol 1982; 17: 129-55.
65. Randall RV, Laws ER Jr, Abboud CR, Ebersold MJ, Kao PC, Scheithauer BW: Transsphenoidal microsurgical treatment of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas, results in 100 patients. Mayo Clin Proc 1983; 58: 108-21.
66. Scanlon MF, Peters JR, Thomas JP, et al.: Management of selected patients with hyperprolactinaemia by partial hypophysectomy. Br Med J 1985; 291: 1547-50.
67. Johnston DG, Hall K, Kendall-Taylor P, et al.: The long-term effects of megavoltage radiotherapy as sole or combined therapy for large prolactinomas: studies with high definition computerized tomography. Clin Endocrinol 1986; 24: 675-85.
68. Littley MD, Shalet SM, Beardwell CG, Ahmed SR, Applegate G, Sutton ML: Hypopituitarism following external radiotherapy for pituitary tumors in adults. Q J Med 1989; 70: 145-60.
69. Corenblum B, Webster BR, Mortimer CB, Ezrin C: Possible antitumour effect of bromoergocryptine (CB 154, Sandoz) in 2 patients with large prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas (abstract). Clin Res 1975; 23:614A.
70. Nillius SJ, Bergh T, Lundberg PO, Stahle J, Wide L: Regression of a prolactin-secreting pituitary tumor during long-term treatment with bromocriptine. Fertil Steril 1978; 30: 710-2.
71. Landolt AM, Wuthrich R, Fellmann H: Regression of pituitary prolactinoma after treatment with bromocriptine (letter). Lancet 1979; 1: 1082.
72. McGregor AM, Scanlon MF, Hall K, Cook DB, Hall R: Reduction in size of a pituitary tumor by bromocriptine therapy. N Engl J Med 1979; 300: 291-3.
73. McGregor AM, Scanlon MF, Hall R, Hall K: Effects of bromocriptine on pituitary tumor size. Br Med J 1979; 2: 700-3.
74. Wass JAH, Moult PJA, Thorner MO, et al.: Reduction of pituitarytumor size in patients with prolactinomas and acromegaly treated with bromcriptine with or without radiotherapy. Lancet 1979; 2: 66-9.
75. Wass JAH, Williams J, Charlesworth M, et al.: Bromocriptine in management of large pituitary tumors. Br Med J 1982; 284: 1908-11.
76. Chiodini P, Liuzzi A, Cozzi R, et al.: Size reduction of macroprolactinomas by bromocriptine of lisuride treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53: 737-43.
77. Sobrinho LG, Numes MC, Calhaz-Jorge C, Mauricio JC, Santos MA: Effect of treatment with bromocriptine on the size and activity of prolactin producing pituitary tumors. Acta Endocrinol 1981; 96: 24-9.
78. Presott RWG, Johnston DG, Kendall-Taylor P, et al.: Hyperprolactinaemia in men: response to bromocriptine therapy. Lancet 1982; 1: 245-8.
79. Nissim M, Ambrosi B, Bemasconi V, et al.: Bromocriptine treatment of macroprolactinomas: studies on the time course of tumor shrinkage and morphology. J Endocrinol Invest 1982; 5: 409-15.
80. Spark RF, Baker R, Beinfang DC, Bergland R: Bromocriptine reduces pituitary tumor size and hypersecretion. Requiem for pituitary surgery? JAMA 1982; 247: 311-6.
81. Walker RF, Yang S-W, Masuda R, Bercu BB: Therapeutic applications for growth hormone releasing peptides in maladaptive changes associated with senescence. In Basic and Clinical Aspects of Growth Hormone II, edited by Bercu BB and Walker RF, pp. 167-192. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1994.
82. Walker RF, Eichler DC, Bercu BB: Inadequate pituitary stimulation: a possible cause of growth hormone insufficiency and hyperprolactinemia in aged rat. Endocr J 1994; 2: 633-8.
83. Niall HD, Hogan ML, Sayer R, Rosenblum IY, Greenwood IC: Sequences of pituitary and placental lactogenic and growth hormones. Evolution from a primordial peptide by gene duplication. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1971; 68: 866-70.
84. Tixier-Vidal A, Tougard C, Dufy D, Vincent JD: Morphological, functional and electrical correlates in anterior pituitary cells. In Neuroendocrine Perspectives, edited by Muller EE, MacLeod RM, P. 211. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1982.
85. Sternberger LA, Joseph SA: The unlabelled antibody method: contrasting color staining of paired pituitary hormones without antibody removal. J Histochem Cytochem 1979; 27: 1424-9.
86. Nakane PK: Classifications of anterior pituitary cell types with immunoenzyme histochemistry. J Histochem Cytochem 1970; 18: 9-20.
87. Horvath E, Kovacs K: Pathology of prolactin cell adenomas of the human pituitary. Semin Diagn Pathol 1986; 3: 4-17.
88. Kovacs K, Horvath E: Pathology of pituitary tumors. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1987; 16: 529-51.
89. Kovacs K, Horvath E: Pathology of pituitary adenomas. In Clinical Neuroendocrinology, edited by Collo R, Brown GM, VanLoon GR, p. 133. Boston, Blackwell, 1988.
90. Melmed S, Braunstein GD, Horvath E, Ezrin C, Kovacs K: Pathophysiology of acromegaly. Endocr Rev 1983; 4: 271-90.
91. Kovacs K, Horvath E, Ezrin C: Pituitary adenomas. Pathol Annu 1977; 2: 341-82.
92. Guyda H, Robert F, Colle E, Hardy J: Histologic, ultrastructural and hormonal characterization of a pituitary tumor secreting both hGH and prolactin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973; 36: 531-47.
93. Zimmerman EA, Defendini R, Frantz AG: Prolactin and growth hormone in patients with pituitary adenomas. A correlative study of hormones in tumor and plasma by immunoperoxidase technique and radioimmunoassay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1974; 38: 577-85.
94. Felix IA, Horvath E, Kovacs K, Smyth HS, Killinger DW, Vale J: Mammosomatotroph adenoma of the pituitary associated with gigantism and hyperprolactinemia. A morphological study including immunoelectron microscopy. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1986; 71: 76-82.
95. Zurschmiede C, Landolt AM: Distribution of growth hormone and prolactin in secretory granules of the normal and neoplastic human adenohypophysis. Virchows Arch Cell Pathol 1987; 53: 308-15.
96. Bassetti M, Spada A, Arosio M, Vallar L, Brina M, Giannattasio G: GH and PRL: hormone studies and immunocytochemical correlates. Adv Biosci 1986; 69: 23.
97. Robert F, Pelletier G, Serri O, Hardy J: Mixed growth hormone and prolactin-secreting human pituitary adenomas. A pathological, immunocytochemical, ultrastructural and immunoelectron microscopic study. Hum Pathol 1986; 19: 1327-34.
98. Holm R, Nesland JM, Attramadal A, Reinli S, Johannessen JV: Mixed growth hormone and prolactin cell adenomas of the pituitary gland. An immunoelectron microscopic study. J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol 1989; 21: 339-50.
99. Kovacs K, Horvath E, Asa SL, Stephaneau L, Sano T: Pituitary cells producing more than one hormone: human pituitary adenomas. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1989; 1: 104.
100. Beckers A, Courtoy R, Stevanaert A, et al.: Mammosomatotrophs in human pituitary adenomas as revealed by electron microscopic double gold immunostaining method. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1988; 118: 503-12.
101. Lloyd RV: Analysis of mammosomatotropic cells in normal and neoplastic human pituitaries. Pathol Res Pract 1988; 183: 577-9.
102. Cameron S, Allen I, Ozo C, Kennedy L, Atkinson B, Hadden D: Clinical, biochemical and immunoelectron microscopical evidence of dual hormone production in a mammosomatotroph cell adenoma. J Pathol 1990; 161: 239-44.
103. Lloyd RV, Anagnostou D, Cano M, Barkan AL, Chandler WF: Analysis of mammosomatotropic cells in normal and neoplastic human pituitary tissues by the reverse hemolytic plaque assay and immunocytochemistry. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 66: 1103-10.
104. Lloyd RV, Cano M, Chandler WF, Barkan, Horvath E, Kovacs K: Human growth hormone and prolactin secreting pituitary adenomas analyzed by in situ hybridization. Am J Pathol 1989; 134: 605-13.
105. Clausen OPF, Gautvik KM, Haug E: Effects of cottisol, 17 beta-estradiol and thyroliberin on prolactin and growth hormone production, cell growth and cell cycle distribution in cultured rat pituitary tumor cells. J Cell Physiol 1978; 94: 205-14.
106. Lloyd RV, Coleman K, Fields K, Nath V: Analysis of prolactin and growth hormone production in hyperplastic and neoplastic rat pituitary tissues by the hemolytic plaque assay. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 1087-92.
107. Lloyd RV, Landefeld TD, Maslar I, Frohman LA: Diethylstilbestrol inhibits tumor growth and prolactin production in rat pituitary tumors. Am J Pathol 1985; 118: 379-86.
108. Lloyd RV, Schmidt K, Coleman K, Wilson BS: Prolactin and growth hormone synthesis and thymidine incorporation in dissociated rat pituitary tumor cells. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1986; 181: 18-23.
109. 3 cells are functionally heterogeneous: thyrotropin-releasing hormone, estradiol and cortisol cause reciprocal shifts in the proportions of growth hormone and prolactin secretors. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 418-20.
110. Gautvik KM, Fossum S: Basal and thyroliberin stimulated prolactin synthesis in single cell cultures and in populations of rat pituitary cells. Biochem J 1976; 158: 119-25.
111. Christensen DS, Hopwood ML, Wiltbank JN: Levels of hormones in the serum of cycling beef cows. J Anim Sci 1974; 38: 577-583.
112. Beresford WA: Direct transdifferentiation: can cells change their phenotype without dividing? Cell Diff Dev 1990; 29: 81-93.
113. Kineman RD, Faught WJ, Frawley LS: Steroids can modulate transdifferentiation of prolactin and growth hormone cells in bovine pituitary cultures. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 3289-94.