Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of hyponatremic encephalopathy

American Journal of Medicine

Volumn 102, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 67-77

  Fraser, Cosmo L ^a   Arieff, Allen I ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; DEMECLOCYCLINE; DIURETIC AGENT; FUROSEMIDE; HYPNOTIC SEDATIVE AGENT; ORAL ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; SEDATIVE AGENT; SEX HORMONE; SODIUM CHLORIDE; TRANQUILIZER; UREA; VASOPRESSIN; VASOPRESSIN ANTAGONIST;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; BRAIN INJURY; CENTRAL PONTINE MYELINOLYSIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; FLUID THERAPY; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPONATREMIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POLYDIPSIA; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0031046793     PISSN: 00029343     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00274-4     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Leaf A. The clinical and physiologic significance of the serum sodium concentration. NEJM. 1962;267:24-30;77-85.
2. McCance RA. Experimental sodium chloride deficiency in man. Proc R Soc Biol. 1936;119:245.
3. Weir JF, Larson E, Rowntree LG. Studies in diabetes insipidus, water balance, and water intoxication. Arch Intern Med. 1922;29:306-330.
4. Arieff AI. Hyponatremia, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and permanent brain damage after elective surgery in healthy women. NEJM. 1986;314:1529-1535.
5. Ayus JC, Arieff AI. Pulmonary complications of hyponatremic encephalopathy: noncardiogenic pulmonary edema and hypercapnic respiratory failure. Chest. 1995;107:517-521.
6. Fraser CL, Arieff AI. Fatal central diabetes mellitus and insipidus resulting from untreated hyponatremia: a new syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1990; 112:113-119.
7. Tien R, Arieff AI, Kucharczyk W, et al. Hyponatremic encephalopathy: is central pontine myelinolysis a component? Am J Med. 1992;92:513-522.
8. Lee WH, Packer M. Prognostic importance of serum sodium concentration and its modification by converting enzyme inhibition in patients with severe chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1986;73:257-267.
9. Schrier RW. Pathogenesis of sodium and water retention in high-output and low-output cardiac failure, nephrotic syndrome, cirrhosis, and pregnancy. Parts 1 and 2. NEJM. 1988;319(16):1065-1072;1127-1134.
10. Arieff AI, Llach F, Massry SG, Kerian A. Neurological manifestations and morbidity of hyponatremia: correlation with brain water and electrolytes. Medicine (Baltimore). 1976;55(2):121-129.
11. Singh N, Yu VL, Gayowski T. Central nervous system lesions in adult liver transplant recipients. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994;73:110-118.
12. Zimmermann B, Wangensteen OH. Observations on water intoxication in surgical patients. Surgery. 1952;31:654-669.
13. Scott JC Jr, Welch JS, Berman IB. Water intoxication and sodium depletion in surgical patients. Obstet Gynecol. 1965;26:168-175.
14. Bartholomew LG, Scholz DA. Reversible postoperative neurological symptoms: report of five cases secondary to water intoxication and sodium depletion. JAMA. 1956;162:22-26.
15. Helwig FC, Schultz CB, Curry DE. Water intoxication: report of a fatal human case, with clinical, pathologic and experimental studies. JAMA. 1935; 104:1569-1575.
16. Lipsmeyer E, Ackerman GL. Irreversible brain damage after water intoxication. JAMA. 1966;196:286-288.
17. Ashraf N, Locksley R, Arieff AI. Thiazide-induced hyponatremia associated with death or neurologic damage in outpatients. Am J Med. 1981;70(6):1163-1168.
18. Worthley LIG, Thomas PD. Treatment of hyponatraemic seizures with intravenous 29.2% saline. BMJ. 1986;292:168-170.
19. Baran D, Hutchinson TA. The outcome of hyponatremia in a general hospital population. Clin Nephrol. 1984;22:72-76.
20. Anderson RJ, Chung HM, Kluge R, Schrier RW. Hyponatremia: a prospective analysis of its epidemiology and the pathogenetic role of vasopressin. Ann Intern Med. 1985;102:164-168.
21. Ayus JC, Wheeler JM, Arieff AI. Postoperative hyponatremic encephalopathy in menstruant women. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:891-897.
22. Baggish MS, Brill AI, Rosenweig B, et al. Fatal acute glycine and sorbitol toxicity during operative hysteroscopy. J Gynecol Surg. 1993;9:137-143.
23. Cowley DM, Pabari M, Sinton TJ, et al. Pathogenesis of postoperative hyponatremia following correction of scoliosis in children. Aust N Z J Surg. 1988;58:485-489.
24. Arieff AI, Ayus JC, Fraser CL. Hyponatraemia and death or permanent brain damage in healthy children. BMJ. 1992;304:1218-1222.
25. Fenves AZ, Thomas S, Knochel JP. Beer potomania: two cases and review of the literature. Clin Nephrol. 1996;45:61-64.
26. Share L. Control of vasopressin release: an old but continuing story. News Physiol Sci. 1996;11:7-13.
27. Fraser CL, Arieff AI. Water metabolism and its disorders. In: Cohen RD, Lewis B, Alberti KGMM, et al, eds. The Metabolic and Molecular Basis of Acquired Disease. Vol 1. Philadelphia and London: WB Saunders/Baillière Tindall; 1990:1002-1039.
28. Lang F, Busch GL, Volkl H, Haussinger D. Cell volume: a second message in regulation of cellular function. News Physiol Sci. 1995;10:18-22.
29. Arieff AI, Kozniewska E, Roberts T, et al. Age, gender and vasopressin affect survival and brain adaptation in rats with metabolic encephalopathy. Am J Physiol. 1995;268(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 37)(5):R1143-R1152.
30. Nielsen S, Smith BL, Christensen EI, Agre P. Distribution of the aquaporin CHIP in secretory and resorptive epithelia and capillary endothelia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993;90:7275-7279.
31. Deen PM, Verdijk MA, Knoers NV, et al. Requirement of human renal water channel aquaphorin-2 for vasopressin-dependent concentration of urine. Science. 1994;264:92-95.
32. Fujita N, Ishikawa SE, Sasaki S, et al. Role of water channel AQP-CD in water retention in SIADH and cirrhotic rats. Am J Physiol. 1995;269:F926-F931.
33. Jung JS, Bhat RV, Preston GM, et al. Molecular characterization of an aquaporin cDNA from brain: candidate osmoreceptor and regulator of water balance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:13052-13056.
34. Brinton RD, Gonzalez TM, Cheung WS. Vasopressin-induced calcium signaling in cultured hippocampal neurons. Brain Res. 1994;661:274-282.
35. Ollet SHR, Bourque CW. Mechanosensitive channels transduce osmosensitivity in supraoptic neurons. Nature. 1993;364:341-343.
36. Del Bigio MR, Fedoroff S. Swelling of astroglia in vitro and the effect of arginine vasopressin and atrial natriuretic peptide. Acta Neurochirurgica. 1990;51(Suppl):14-16.
37. Kanda F, Arieff AI. Vasopressin inhibits calcium-coupled sodium efflux system in rat brain synaptosomes. Am J Physiol 1994;266(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 35):R1169-R1173.
38. + ATPase pump function in male rat brain synaptosomes is different from that of females. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(Endocrinol Metab 20):E284-E289.
39. Vexler ZS, Ayus JC, Roberts TPL, et al. Ischemic or hypoxic hypoxia exacerbates brain injury associated with metabolic encephalopathy in laboratory animals. J Clin Invest. 1994;93:256-264.
40. Morris CE, Sigurdson WJ. Stretch-inactivated ion channels coexist with stretch-activated ion channels. Science. 1989;243:807-809.
41. O'Connor ER, Kimelberg HK. Role of calcium in astrocyte volume regulation and in the release of ions and amino acids. J Neuroscience. 1993;13(6):2638-2650.
42. Verbalis JG. Hyponatremia: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and therapy. Curr Opin Nephrol Hyper. 1993;2:636-652.
43. Kalur JS, Martin JN, Kirchner KA, Morrison JC. Postpartum preeclampsia-induced shock and death: a report of three cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165:1362-1368.
44. Fraser CL, Swanson RA. Female sex hormones inhibit volume regulation in rat brain astrocyte culture. Am J Physiol. (Cell Physiol 36) 1994;267:C909-C914.
45. Fraser CL, Kucharczyk J, Arieff AI, et al. Sex differences result in increased morbidity from hyponatremia in female rats. Am J Physiol. 1989;256(Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 25):R880-R885.
46. Okada K, Caramelo C, Tsai P, Schrier RW. Effect of inhibition of Na+/K+-adenosine triphosphatase on vascular action of vasopressin. J Clin Invest. 1990;86:1241-1248.
47. Kozniewska E, Roberts TPL, Vexler ZS, et al. Hormonal dependence of the effects of metabolic encephalopathy on cerebral perfusion and oxygen utilization in the rat. Circ Res. 1995;76:551-558.
48. Ayus JC, Arieff AI. Brain damage and postoperative hyponatremia: role of gender. Neurology. 1996;46:323-328.
49. Vieweg WVR. Special topics in water balance in schizophrenia. In: Schnur DB, Kirch DG, eds. Water Balance in Schizophrenia. London: American Psychiatric Press; 1996;43-52.
50. Goldman MB, Luchini DJ, Robertson GL. Mechanisms of altered water metabolism in psychotic patients with polydipsia and hyponatremia. NEJM. 1988;318(7):397-403.
51. Packer M, Medina N, Yushak M. Correction of dilutional hyponatremia in severe chronic heart failure by converting-enzyme inhibition. Ann Intern Med. 1984;100:782-789.
52. DeFronzo RA, Arieff AI. Hyponatremia: pathophysiology and treatment. In: Arieff AI, DeFronzo RA, eds. Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders. 2nd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995:255-303.
53. Vitting KE, Gardenswartz MH, Zabetakis PM, et al. Frequency of hyponatremia and nonosmolar vasopressin release in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. JAMA. 1990;263:973-978.
54. Grinspoon SK, Bilezikian JP. HIV disease and the endocrine system. NEJM. 1992;327:1360-1365.
55. Miller PD, Linas SL, Schrier RW. Plasma demeclocycline levels and nephrotoxicity. Correlation in hyponatremic cirrhotic patients. JAMA. 1980; 243:2513-2515.
56. Ayus JC, Krothapalli RK, Arieff AI. Treatment of symptomatic hyponatremia and its relation to brain damage. A prospective study. NEJM. 1987;317:1190-1195.
57. Sterns RH. Severe symptomatic hyponatremia: treatment and outcome. A study of 64 cases. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:656-664.
58. Ayus JC, Arieff AI. Glycine-induced hypoosmolar hyponatremia. Arch Intern Med. 1997. In press.
59. Adams RD, Foley JM. The neurological disorders associated with liver disease. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1953;32:198-216.
60. Ayus JC, Armstrong DL, Arieff AI. Effects of hypernatraemia in the central nervous system and its therapy in rats and rabbits. J Physiol (London). 1996;492.1:243-255.
61. Ayus JC, Krothapalli R, Armstrong DL, Norton HJ. Symptomatic hyponatremia in rats: effect of treatment on mortality and brain lesions. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol 26):F18-F22.
62. Krigman MR, Bouldin TW. Oxygen deficiency: brain hypoxia and ischemia. In: Schochet SS Jr, ed. Neuropathology. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1983:496-561.