Participation of noradrenergic pathways in the expression of opiate withdrawal: Biochemical and pharmacological evidence

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 91-104

  Maldonado, Rafael ^a  

^a CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

Abstinence; Adrenoceptor; Clonidin e; Dopamine; Locus coeruleus; Morphine dependence; Noradrenaline; Nucleus paragigantocellularis; Withdrawal

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; CLONIDINE; CYCLIC AMP; EXCITATORY AMINO ACID; MORPHINE; NORADRENALIN; OPIATE; PROPRANOLOL;

ARTICLE; DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM; GIGANTOCELLULAR RETICULAR NUCLEUS; LIMBIC SYSTEM; LOCUS CERULEUS; MICRODIALYSIS; NERVE PROJECTION; NONHUMAN; NORADRENALIN BRAIN LEVEL; NORADRENERGIC SYSTEM; OPIATE ADDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEPTOR DENSITY; RECEPTOR SENSITIVITY; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 0031045839     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(95)00061-5     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Acquas E., Carboni E., Di Chiara G. Profound depression of mesolimbic dopamine release after morphine withdrawal in dependent rats. Eur. J. Pharmac. 193:1991;133-134.
2. Acquas E., Di Chiara G. Depression of mesolimbic dopamine transmission and sensitization to morphine during opiate abstinence. J. Neurochem. 58:1992;1620-1625.
3. Aghajanian G.G., Wang Y.Y. Common alpha-2 and opiate effector mechanisms in the locus coeruleus intracellular studies in brain slices. Neuropharmacology. 26:1987;793-799.
4. Aghajanian G.K. Tolerance of locus coeruleus neurones to morphine and suppression of withdrawal response by clonidine. Nature. 276:1978;186-188.
5. Aghajanian G.K., Kogan J.H., Moghaddam B. Opiate withdrawal increases glutamate and aspartate efflux in the locus coeruleus: An in vivo microdialysis study. Brain Res. 636:1994;126-130.
6. Akaoka A., Aston-Jones G. Opiate withdrawal-induced hyperactivity of locus coeruleus neurons is substantially mediated by augmented excitatory amino acid input. J. Neurosci. 11:1991;3830-3839.
7. Akera T., Brody T.M. The addiction cycle to narcotics in the rat and its relation to catecholamines. Biochem. Pharmac. 17:1968;675-688.
8. Andrade R., Vandermaelen C., Aghajanian G. Morphine tolerance and dependence in the locus coeruleus: Single cell studies in brain slices. Eur. J. Pharmac. 91:1983;161-169.
9. Baraban S.C., Stornetta R.L., Guyenet P.G. Effects of morphine and morphine withdrawal on adrenergic neurons of the rat rostral ventrolateral medulla. Brain Res. 676:1995;245-257.
10. Bartoletti M., Gaiardi M., Gubellini C., Bacchi A., Babbini M. Cross-tolerance between morphine and clonidine: A study on motility in rats. Neuropharmacology. 28:1989;1159-1162.
11. Bell J.A., Kimes A.S., London E.D. Increased glucose utilisation in superficial layers of the rat spinal dorsal horn during precipitated morphine withdrawal. Eur. J. Pharmac. 150:1988;171-174.
12. Bird S.J., Kuhar M.J. Iontophoretic application of opiates to the locus coeruleus. Brain Res. 122:1977;523-533.
13. Brent P.J., Chahl L.A. Enhancement of the opiate withdrawal response by antipsychotic drugs in guinea-pigs is not mediated by sigma binding sites. Eur. Neuropsychopharmac. 3:1993;23-32.
14. Britton K.T., Svensson T., Schwartz J., Bloom F.E., Koob G.F. Dorsal noradrenergic bundle lesions fail to alter opiate withdrawal or suppression of opiate withdrawal by clonidine. Life Sci. 34:1984;133-139.
15. Brodie M.E., Laverty R., McQueen E.G. Noradrenaline release from slices of the thalamus of normal and morphine-dependent rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 313:1980;135-138.
16. Buccafusco J.J., Marshall D.C., Tarner R.M. A comparison of the inhibitory effects of clonidine and guanfacine on the behavioral and autonomic components of morphine withdrawal in rats. Life Sci. 35:1984;1401-1408.
17. Bunney B.S., Aghajanian G.K. Dopamine and norepinephrine innervated cells in the rat prefrontal cortex: pharmacological differentiation using microiontophoretic techniques. Life Sci. 19:1976;1783-1792.
18. Calvino B., Lagowska J., Ben-Ari Y. Morphine withdrawal syndrome: Differential participation of structures located within the amygdaloid complex and striatum of the rat. Brain Res. 177:1979;19-34.
19. Chahl L.A., Thornton C.A., Corliss A. Enhancement by haloperidol of the locomotor response induced by naloxone in morphine treated guinea-pigs. Neurosci. Lett. 96:1989;213-217.
20. Charney S.D., Redmond E. Jr., Galloway M.P., Kleber H.D., Heninger G.R., Murberg M., Roth R.H. Naltrexone precipitated opiate withdrawal in methadone addicted human subjects: Evidence for noradrenergic hyperactivity. Life Sci. 35:1984;1263-1272.
21. Chipkin R.E., Dewey W.L., Harris L.S., Lowenthal W. Effect of propranolol on antinociceptive and withdrawal characteristics of morphine. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 3:1975;843-847.
22. Christie M.J., Williams J.T., North R.A. Cellular mechanisms of opioid tolerance: Studies in single brain neurons. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 32:1987;633-638.
23. Cicero T.J., Meyer E.R., Bell R.D. Effects of phenoxybenzamine on the narcotic withdrawal syndrome in the rat. Neuropharmacology. 13:1974;601-607.
24. 2-adrenoceptor agonists on the expression of morphine-withdrawal in rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 345:1992;553-557.
25. Crawley J.N., Laverty R., Roth R.H. Clonidine reversal of increased norepinephrine metabolite levels during morphine withdrawal. Eur. J. Pharmac. 57:1979;247-250.
26. Dahlstrom A., Fuxe K. Evidence for the existence of monoamine-containing neurons in the central nervous system. I. Demonstration of monoamines in the cell bodies of brainstem neurons Acta Physiol. Scand. 232((Suppl.)):1965;1-55.
27. De Vries T.J., Ril G.T.T., Van der Laan J.W., Mulder A.H., Schoffelmeer A.N.M. Chronic exposure to morphine and naltrexone induces changes in catecholaminergic neurotransmission in rat brain without altering μ-opioid receptor sensitivity. Life Sci. 52:1993;1685-1693.
28. Delle M., Ricksten S.E., Haggendal J., Olsson K., Skarphedinsson J.O., Thören P. Regional changes in sympathetic nerve activity, baroreceptor reflex function and arterial plasma levels of catecholamines, renin and vasopressin during naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal in rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 253:1990;646-654.
29. Di Chiara G., Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA. 85:1988;5274-5278.
30. DiStefano P.S., Brown O.M. Biochemical correlates of morphine withdrawal. 2. Effects of clonidine. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 233:1985;339-344.
31. Done C., Silverstone P., Sharp T. Effect of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal on noradrenaline release in rat hippocampus in vivo. Eur. J. Pharmac. 215:1992;333-336.
32. Dwoskin L.P., Neal B.S., Sparber S.B. Yohimbine exacerbates and clonidine attenuates acute morphine withdrawal in rats. Eur. J. Pharmac. 90:1983;269-273.
33. Elchisak M.A., Rosecrans J.A. Development of morphine tolerance and physical dependence in rats depleted of brain catecholamines by 6-hydroxydopamine. Neuropharmacology. 18:1979;175-182.
34. Ennis M., Aston-Jones G. Activation of locus coeruleus from nucleus paragigantocellularis: A new excitatory amino acid pathway in brain. J. Neurosci. 8:1988;3644-3657.
35. Esposito E., Kruszewska A., Ossowska G., Samanin R. Noradrenergic and behavioural effects of naloxone injected in the locus coeruleus of morphine-dependent rats and their control by clonidine. Psychopharmacology. 93:1987;393-396.
36. Foote S.L., Bloom F.E., Aston-Jones G. Nucleus locus coeruleus: New evidence of anatomical and physiological specificity. Physiol. Rev. 63:1983;844-914.
37. Franz D.N., Hare B.D., McCloskey K.L. Spinal sympathetic neurons: Possible sites of opiate-withdrawal suppression by clonidine. Science. 215:1982;1643-1645.
38. 2-adrenoceptor responses of rat amygdaloid neurons: Co-localisation and interactions during withdrawal. J. Neurosci. 5:1985;3016-3024.
39. Friedler G., Bhargava H.N., Quock R., Way E.L. The effect of 6-hydroxydopamine on morphine tolerance and physical dependence. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 183:1972;49-55.
40. Funada M., Narita M., Suzuki T., Misawa M. Effects of pretreatment with pertussis toxin on the development of physical dependence on morphine. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 348:1993;88-95.
41. Funada, M.; Suzuki, T.; Sugano, Y.; Tsubai, M.; Misawa, M.; Ueda, H.; Misu, Y. Role of the β-adrenoceptors in the expression of morphine withdrawal signs. Life Sci. 54:PL 113-118; 1994.
42. 2-adrenoceptor agonist binding sites in the postmortem brain of heroin addicts. Psychopharmacology. 115:1994;135-140.
43. Geary II W.A., Wooten G.F. Similar functional anatomy of spontaneous and precipitated morphine withdrawal. Brain Res. 334:1985;183-186.
44. Gold M.S., Redmond D.E. Jr., Kleber H.D. Clonidine blocks acute opiate withdrawal symptoms. Lancet. 2:1978;599-602.
45. Gonzalvez M.L., Milanés M.V., Martinez-Piñero M.G., Marín M.T., Vargas M.L. Effects of intracerebroventricular clonidine on the hypothalamic noradrenaline and plasma corticosterone levels of opiate naive rats and after naloxone-induced withdrawal. Brain Res. 647:1994;199-203.
46. Grant S.J., Huang Y.H., Redmond E. Jr. Behavior of monkeys during opiate withdrawal and locus coeruleus stimulation. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 30:1988;13-19.
47. Grosz H.J. Narcotic withdrawal symptoms in heroin users treated with propranolol. Lancet. 2:1972;564-566.
48. Grosz H.J. Successful treatment of a heroin addict with propranolol: Implications for opiate addiction treatment and research. J. Indiana State Med. Assoc. 65:1972;505-509.
49. Grosz H.J. Effect of propranolol on active users of heroin. Lancet. 2:1973;612.
50. Gunne L.M. Catecholamines and 5-hydroxytryptamine in morphine tolerance and withdrawal. Acta Physiol. Scand. 204((Suppl)):1963;1-91.
51. Gunne L.M. Noradrenaline and adrenaline in the rat brain during acute and chronic morphine administration and during withdrawal. Nature. 184:1959;1950-1951.
52. 2-adrenonergic receptors in rat brain. Nature. 291:1981;493-495.
53. Harris G.C., Aston-Jones G. Beta-adrenergic antagonists attenuate somatic and aversive signs of opiate withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology. 9:1993;303-311.
54. Harris G.C., Aston-Jones G. Beta-adrenergic antagonists attenuate withdrawal anxiety in cocaine- and morphine-dependent rats. Psychopharmacology. 113:1993;131-136.
55. 2 dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens in the opiate withdrawal syndrome. Nature. 371:1994;155-157.
56. Hayward M.D., Duman R.S., Nestler E.J. Induction of the c-fos proto-oncogene during opiate withdrawal in the locus coeruleus and other regions of rat brain. Brain Res. 525:1990;256-266.
57. Hollister L.E., Prusmack J.J. Propranolol in withdrawal from opiates. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 31:1974;695-698.
58. Hong M., Milne B., Jhamandas K. Evidence for the involvement of excitatory amino acid pathways in the development of precipitated withdrawal from acute and chronic morphine: An in vivo voltammetric study in the rat locus coeruleus. Brain Res. 623:1994;131-141.
59. Ignar R.D., Kunhn C.M. Effects of specific mu and kappa opiate tolerance and abstinence on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis secretion in the rat. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 255:1990;1287-1295.
60. Isaacson R.L., Lanthorn T.H. Hippocampal involvement in the pharmacological induction of withdrawal like behaviors. Fed. Proc. 40:1981;1500-1512.
61. Jasinski D.R., Johnson R.E., Kocher T.R. Clonidine in morphine withdrawal: Differential effects on signs and symptoms. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 42:1985;1063-1068.
62. Jhamandas K., Sutak M., Bell S. Modification of precipitated morphine withdrawal syndrome by drug affecting cholinergic mechanisms. Eur. J. Pharmac. 24:1973;296-305.
63. Kamisaki Y., Hamahashi T., Hamada T., Maeda K., Itoh T. Presynaptic inhibition by clonidine of neurotransmitter amino acid release in various brain regions. Eur. J. Pharmac. 217:1992;57-63.
64. Kelsey J.E., Aranow J.S., Matthews R.T. Context-specific morphine withdrawal in rats: Duration and effects of clonidine. Behav. Neurosci. 104:1990;704-710.
65. Kimes A.S., Bell J.A., London E.D. Clonidine attenuates increased brain glucose metabolism during naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal. Neuroscience. 34:1990;633-644.
66. Kimes A.S., London E.D. Glucose utilisation in the rat brain during chronic morphine treatment and naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 248:1989;538-545.
67. Kimes A.S., Maldonado R., Koob G.F., Ambrosio E., London E.D. Injections of methylnaloxonium into the locus coeruleus produce cerebral hypermetabolism in morphine-dependent rats. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts. 19:1993;1022.
68. Kogan J.H., Nestler E.J., Aghajanian G.K. Elevated basal firing rates and enhanced responses to 8-Br-cAMP in locus coeruleus neurons in brain slices from opiate-dependent rats. Eur. J. Pharmac. 211:1992;47-53.
69. Koob G.F., Wall T.L., Bloom F.E. Nucleus accumbens as a substrate for the aversive stimulus effects of opiate withdrawal. Psychopharmacology. 98:1989;530-534.
70. Kosten T.A. Clonidine attenuates conditioned aversion produced by naloxone-precipitated opiate withdrawal. Eur. J. Pharmac. 254:1994;59-63.
71. Kuriyama K. Central beta-adrenergic receptor-adenylate cyclase system and formation of morphine withdrawal syndrome. Trends Pharmac. Sci. 3:1982;473-476.
72. Laschka E., Teschemacher P., Mehrain P., Herz A. Sites of action of morphine involved in the development of physical dependence in rats. II. Morphine withdrawal precipitated by application of morphine antagonists into restricted parts of the ventricular system and by microinjection into various brain areas Psychopharmacologia. 46:1976;141-147.
73. Laverty R., Roth R.H. Clonidine reverses the increased norepinephrine turnover during morphine withdrawal in rats. Brain Res. 182:1980;482-485.
74. Llorens C., Martres M., Bardry M., Schwartz J. Hypersensitivity to noradrenaline in cortex after chronic morphine: Relevance to tolerance and dependence. Nature. 274:1978;603-605.
75. Maldonado R., Feger J., Fournié-Zaluski M.C., Roques B.P. Differences in physical dependence induced by selective mu or delta opioid agonists and by endogenous enkephalins protected by peptidases inhibitors. Brain Res. 520:1990;247-254.
76. Maldonado R., Fournié-Zaluski M.C., Roques B.P. Attenuation of the morphine withdrawal syndrome by inhibition of the endogenous enkephalin catabolism into the periaqueductal gray matter. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 345:1992;466-472.
77. Maldonado R., Koob G.F. Modification in the development of morphine dependence in rats by electrolytic lesion of the locus coeruleus. Brain Res. 605:1993;128-138.
78. Maldonado R., Stinus L., Gold L., Koob G.F. Role of different brain structures in the expression of the physical morphine withdrawal syndrome. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 261:1992;669-677.
79. Maldonado R., Valverde O., Garbay C., Roques B.P. Protein kinases mediate the expression of opiate withdrawal in the locus coeruleus and periaqueductal gray matter. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 352:1995;565-575.
80. Matsuoka I., Maldonado R., Defer N., Noël F., Hanoune J., Roques B.P. Chronic morphine administration causes region-specific increase of brain type VIII adenylyl cyclase mRNA. Eur. J. Pharmac. Molec. Sect. 268:1994;215-221.
81. Maynert E.W., Klingman G.I. Tolerance to morphine. I. Effects on catecholamines in the brain and adrenal glands J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 135:1962;285-295.
82. Moises H., Smith C. Changes in cortical beta-adrenergic receptor density and neuronal sensitivity to norepinephrine accompany morphine dependence and withdrawal. Brain Res. 400:1987;110-126.
83. Montel J., Starke K., Taube H.D. Morphine tolerance and dependence in noradrenaline neurones of the rat cerebral cortex. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 288:1975;415-426.
84. Moore R.Y., Bloom F.E. Central catecholamine neurons system: Anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine system. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 2:1979;1113-1168.
85. Nestler E.J., Tallman J.F. Chronic morphine treatment increases cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase in the rat locus coeruleus. Molec. Pharmac. 33:1988;127-132.
86. Nestler E.J. Molecular mechanisms of drug addiction. J. Neurosci. 12:1992;2439-2450.
87. Noble F., Coric P., Fournié-Zaluski M.C., Roques B.P. Lack of physical dependence in mice after repeated systemic administration of the mixed inhibitor prodrug of enkephalin-degrading enzymes RB 101. Eur. J. Pharmac. 223:1992;91-96.
88. North R.A., Williams J.T. On the potassium conductance increased by opioids in locus coeruleus neurons. J. Physiol. (London). 364:1985;265-280.
89. 3H]-noradrenaline release. Br. J. Pharmac. 93:1988;535-540.
90. Pothos E., Rada P., Mak G.P., Hoebel B.G. Dopamine microdialysis in the nucleus accumbens during acute and chronic morphine, naloxone-precipitated withdrawal and clonidine treatment. Brain Res. 566:1991;348-350.
91. Rada P., Pothos E., Mark G.P., Hoebel B.G. Microdialysis evidence that acetylcholine in the nucleus accumbens is involved in morphine withdrawal and its treatment with clonidine. Brain Res. 561:1991;354-356.
92. Rasmussen K., Aghajanian G.K. Withdrawal-induced activation of locus coeruleus neurons in opiate-dependent rats: Attenuation by lesions of the nucleus paragigantocellularis. Brain Res. 505:1989;346-350.
93. Rasmussen K., Beitner-Johnson D.B., Krystal J.H., Aghajanian G.K., Nestler E.J. Opiate withdrawal and the locus coeruleus: Behavioral, electrophysiological, and biochemical correlates. J. Neurosc. 10:1990;2308-2317.
94. Rasmussen K., Krystal J.H., Aghajanian G.K. Excitatory amino acids and morphine withdrawal: differential effects of central and peripheral kynurenic acid administration. Psychopharmacology. 105:1991;508-512.
95. Redmond, D.E. Jr. Studies of the locus coeruleus in monkeys and hypotheses for neuropsychopharmacology. In: Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, H.Y. Meltzer (Ed.) Raven Press, New York, pp. 967-975; 1987.
96. Redmond D.E. Jr., Huan Y.H. Current concepts. II. New evidence for a locus coeruleus-norepinephrine connection with anxiety Life Sci. 25:1979;2149-2162.
97. Redmond, D.E. Jr; Huang, Y.H. The primate locus coeruleus and effects of clonidine on opiate withdrawal. J. Clin. Psychiat. 43:6(sec.2).25-29; 1982.
98. Redmond D.E. Jr., Huang Y.H., Snyder D.R., Maas J.W. Behavioral effects of stimulation of the nucleus locus coeruleus in the stump-tailed monkey (Maccaca arctoides). Brain Res. 116:1976;502-510.
99. Redmond D.E. Jr., Segal M., Deneau G.A., Seevers M.H. Levels and distribution of central nervous system amines in normal and morphine-dependent monkeys. Neuropharmacology. 11:1972;211-222.
100. Resnick R.B., Kestenbaum R.S., Schwartz L.K., Smith A. Evaluation of propranolol in opiate dependence. Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 33:1976;993-997.
101. Roerich H., Gold M.S. Propranolol as adjunct to clonidine in opiate detoxification. Am. J. Psychiat. 144:1987;1099-1100.
102. Ronken E., Mulder A.H., Schoffelmer A.N.M. Chronic activation of mu- and kappa-opioid receptors in cultured catecholaminergic neurons from rat brain causes neuronal supersensitivity without receptor desensitization. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 268:1994;595-599.
103. Rossetti Z.L., Hmaidan Y., Gessa G.L. Marked inhibition of mesolimbic dopamine release: A common feature of ethanol, morphine, cocaine and amphetamine abstinence in rats. Eur. J. Pharmac. 221:1992;227-234.
104. Rossetti Z.L., Longu G., Mercuro G., Gessa G.L. Extraneuronal noradrenaline in the prefrontal cortex of morphine-dependent rats: tolerance and withdrawal mechanisms. Brain Res. 609:1993;316-320.
105. Roth R.H., Redmond D.E. Jr. Clonidine suppression of noradrenergic hyperactivity during morphine withdrawal: biochemical studies in rodents and primates. J. Clin. Psychiat. 43:1982;42-46.
106. Sesak S.R., Deutch A.Y., Roth R.H., Bunney B.S. Topographical organization of efferent projections of the medial prefrontal cortex in the rat: An anterograde tract-tracing study with Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin. J. Com. Neur. 290:1989;213-232.
107. Shiekhattar R., Aston-Jones G. Activation of adenylate cyclase attenuates the hyperpolarization following single action potentials in brain noradrenergic neurons independently of protein kinase. A. Neuroscience. 62:1994;523-529.
108. Silverstone P.H., Done C., Sharp T. In vivo monoamine release during naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal. NeuroReport. 4:1993;1043-1045.
109. Sloam J.W., Brooks J.W., Eisenman A.J., Martin W.R. The effects of addiction to and abstinence from morphine on rat tissue catecholamine and serotonine levels. Psychopharmacologia (Berlin). 4:1963;261-270.
110. 2-adrenoceptor in various areas of the rat brain after long-term administration of "mu" and "kappa" opiate agonists. Life Sci. 33((Suppl. I)):1983;369-372.
111. 2-adrenoceptor number and function in brains of morphine-dependent rats. Eur. J. Pharmac. 161:1989;111-119.
112. Sparber S.B., Meyer D.R. Clonidine antagonizes naloxone-induced suppression of conditionated behavior and body weight loss in morphine-dependent rats. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 9:1978;319-325.
113. Stornetta R.L., Norton F.E., Guyenet P.G. Autonomic areas of rat brain exhibit increased Fos-like immunoreactivity during opiate withdrawal in rats. Brain Res. 624:1993;19-28.
114. Strosberg A.D. Structure, function, and regulation of adrenergic receptors. Protein Sci. 2:1993;1198-1209.
115. Swann A., Elsworth J.D., Charney D.S., Jablons D.M., Roth R.H., Redmond D.E. Jr., Maas J.W. Brain catecholamine metabolites and behavior in morphine withdrawal. Eur. J. Pharmac. 86:1983;167-175.
116. Taylor J.R., Elsworth J.D., Garcia E.J., Grant S.J., Roth R.H., Redmond D.E. Jr. Clonidine infusions into the locus coeruleus attenuate behavioral and neurochemical changes associated with naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. Psychophamacology. 96:1988;121-134.
117. Taylor J.R., Lewis V.O., Elsworth J.D., Pivirotto P., Roth R.H., Redmond D.E. Jr. Yohimbine co-treatment during chronic morphine administration attenuates naloxone-precipitated withdrawal without diminishing tail-flick analgesia in rats. Psychopharmacology. 103:1991;407-414.
118. 2 agonists, rilmenidine and clonidine, on the morphine withdrawal syndrome and their potential addictive properties in rats. Am. J. Cardiol. 61:1988;35D-38D.
119. Tseng T.F., Loh H.H., Wei E.T. Effects of clonidine on morphine withdrawal signs in the rat. Eur. J. Pharmac. 30:1975;93-99.
120. Tung C.S., Grenhoff J., Svensson T.H. Morphine withdrawal responses of rat locus coeruleus neurons are blocked by an excitatory amino acid antagonist. Acta Physiol. Scand. 138:1990;581-582.
121. 2-adrenoceptor and μ-opioid receptor densities during morphine dependence and spontaneous withdrawal in rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmac. 336:1987;530-537.
122. 2-adrenoceptors. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 430:1984;55-59.
123. Valeri P., Martinelli B., Pimpinella G., Severini C. Effects of dapiprazole, clonidine and yohimbine on the development of dependence and withdrawal behavior in mice. Drug Alcohol Depend. 23:1989;73-77.
124. 2-receptors. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmac. 329:1985;293-298.
125. Van der Laan J.W., De Groot G. Changes in locomotor activity patterns as a measure of spontaneous morphine withdrawal: no effect of clonidine. Drug Alcohol Depend. 22:1988;133-140.
126. Van der Laan J.W., Van't Land C.J. Chronic infusion of clonidine does not alleviate spontaneous morphine withdrawal symptoms in rats. Psychopharmacology. 108:1992;283-288.
127. Van Vliet B.J., Ruuls S.R., Drukarch B., Mulder A.H., Schoffelmeer A.N.M. β-adrenoceptor-sensitive adenylate cyclase is inhibited by activation of μ-opioid receptors in rat striatal neurons. Eur. J. Pharmac. 195:1991;295-300.
128. 2-adrenergic receptors in rat cerebral cortex, kidney and in the neurotumor cell line NCB20. Eur. J. Pharmac. 95:1983;265-270.
129. Voght M. The concentrations of sympathin in different parts of the central nervous system under normal conditions and after the administration of drugs. J. Physiol. (London). 123:1954;451-481.
130. Wei E., Loh H.H., Way E.L. Neuroanatomical correlates of morphine dependence. Science. 177:1972;616-617.
131. Wei E., Loh H.H., Way E.L. Brain sites of precipitated abstinence in morphine-dependent rats. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 185:1973;108-115.
132. Werling L.L., Brown S.R., Cox B.M. Opioid receptor regulation of the release of norepinephrine in brain. Neuropharmacology. 26:1987;987-996.
133. Werling L.L., McMahon S.R., Cox B.M. Selective tolerance at mu and kappa opioid receptors modulating norepinephrine release in guinea pig cortex. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 247:1988;1103-1106.
134. Williams J.T., Christie M.J., North R.A., Roques B.P. Potentiation of enkephalin action by peptidase inhibitors in rat locus coeruleus in vitro. J. Pharmac. Exp. Ther. 243:1987;397-401.
135. Williams J.T., North R.A. Opiate-receptor interactions on single locus coeruleus neurons. Molec. Pharmac. 26:1984;67-70.
136. Zhang, T.; Feng, Y.; Rockhold, R.W.; Ho, I.K. Naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal increases pontine glutamate levels in the rat. Life Sci. 55:PL25-31; 1994.
137. Zigun J.R., Bannon M.J., Roth R.H. Comparison of two alpha-noradrenergic agonists (clonidine and guanfacine) on norepinephrine turnover in the cortex of rats during morphine abstinence. Eur. J. Pharmac. 70:1981;565-570.