Origin and evolution of sleep: Roles of vision and endothermy

Brain Research Bulletin

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 245-264

  Kavanau, J Lee ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptations for nocturnality; Complex retinal processing; Deep torpor; Mammalian evolution; REM sleep; Sleep evolution; Sleep functions; Unihemispheric sleep; Vertebrate vision

Indexed keywords

BRAIN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HUMAN; MEMORY; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REM SLEEP; REVIEW; SIGNAL PROCESSING; SLEEP; SYNAPSE; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION; VISION; VISUAL INFORMATION;

EID: 0031039691     PISSN: 03619230     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0361-9230(96)00331-0     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. Allin E. F. Evolution of the mammalian middle ear. J. Morphol. 147:1975;403-437.
2. Allison T., Cicchetti D. V. Sleep in mammals: Ecological and constitutional correlates. Science. 194:1976;732-734.
3. Allison T., Van Twyver H., Goff W. R. Electrophysiological studies of the echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus. I. Waking and sleep. Archs. Ital. Biol. 110:1972;145-184.
4. Amliner C. J. Jr., Ball N. J. A synthesis of sleep in wild birds. Behav. 87:1983;85-119.
5. Amliner C. J. Jr., Ball N. J. Avian sleep. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;81-94 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
6. Ammermüller J., Weiler R. Correlation between electrophysiological responses and morphological classes of turtle amacrine cells. Weiler R., Osborne N. O. Neurobiology of the inner retina. 1988;117-132 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
7. Anderson A. A. Coordinate transformations and motor planning in posterior parietal cortex. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;519-532 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
8. Andrew R. J., Mench J., Rainey C. Right-left asymmetry of response to visual stimuli in the domestic chick. Ingle D. J., Goodale M. A., Mansfield R. J. Analysis of visual behavior. 1982;197-209 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
9. Antrobus J., Bertini M. Introduction. Antrobus J., Bertini M. The neuropsychology of sleep and dreaming. 1992;1-14 Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
10. Arbib M. A., Cobas A. Schemas for prey-catching in frog and toad. Meyer J.-A., Wilson S. W. From animals to animats. 1991;540-549 MIT Press, Cambridge.
11. Avery R. A. Lizards - A study in thermoregulation. 1979;University Park Press, Baltimore.
12. Baldy-Moulinier M., Touchon J., Besset A., Billiard M., Cadilhac J., Passouant P. Sleep architecture and epileptic seizures. Degen R., Niedermeyer E. Epilepsy, sleep and sleep deprivation. 1984;109-118 Elsevier, New York.
13. Ball N. J., Amlaner C. J., Shaffery J. P., Opp M. R. Asynchronous eye-closure and unihemispheric quiet sleep of birds. Koella W. P., Obál F., Schulz H., Visser P. Sleep '86. 1988;151-153 Fischer-Verlag, Stuttgart.
14. Basar E. Brain dynamics, relation between EEG and brain evoked potentials. 1980;Elsevier, Amsterdam.
15. Berger R. J., Phillips N. H. Energy conservation and sleep. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;65-73.
16. Bogert C. M. The tuatara: Why is it a lone survivor? Sci. Monthly. 76:1953;163-170.
17. Boxerman D., Spilken A. Alpha Brain Waves. 1975;Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California.
18. Bullock T. H., Horridge G. A. Structure and function in the nervous systems of invertebrates. 1965;W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.
19. Burda H., Bruns V., Muller M. Sensory adaptations in subterranean mammals. Nevo E., Reig O. A. Evolution of subterranean mammals at the organismal and molecular levels. 1990;269-293 Alan R. Liss, New York.
20. Butler A. B., Northcutt R. G. Retinal projections in the bowfin, Amia calva, cytoarchitectonic and experimental analysis. Brain, Behav. Evol. 39:1992;169-194.
21. Buzsáki G. Two stage model of memory trace formation: A role for "noisy" brain states. Neurosci. 31:1989;551-570.
22. Buzsáki G., Horváth Z., Urioste R., Hetke J., Wise K. High-frequency network oscillation in the hippocampus. Science. 256:1992;1025-1027.
23. Cai Z.-J. An integrative analysis to sleep functions. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;187-194.
24. Campbell S. S., Tobler I. Animal sleep: A review of sleep duration across phylogeny. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 8:1984;269-300.
25. Carskadon M. A., Dement W. C. Normal sleep and its variations. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;1-13 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
26. Changeux J. P., Danchin A. Selective stabilization of developing synapses as mechanism for the specification of neuronal networks. Nature. 264:1976;705-712.
27. Chase M. H., Morales F. R. The atonia and myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. Ann. Rev. Psychol. 41:1990;557-584.
28. Chrobak J. J., Buzsáki G. Selective activation of deep layer (V-VI) retrohippocampal cortical neurons during hippocampal sharp waves in the behaving rat. J. Neurosci. 14:1994;6160-6170.
29. Cohen D. B. Sleep and dreaming: Origins, nature and functions. 1979;Pergamon Press, New York.
30. Collin S. P., Northcutt R. G. The visual system of the Florida garfish Lepisosteus platyrhincus (Ginglymodi). Brain, Behav. Evol. 45:1995;34-53.
31. Connors B. W., Amitai Y. Functions of local circuits in neocortex: synchrony and laminae. Gutnick M. J., Mody I. The cortical neuron. 1995;123-140 Oxford University Press, New York.
32. Crompton A. W., Jenkins F. A. Jr. Origin of mammals. Lillegraven J. A., Kielen-Jaworowska Z., Clemens W. A. Mesozoic mammals. 1979;59-90 University of California Press, Berkeley.
33. Daan S., Barnes B. M., Strijkstra A. M. Warming up for sleep? - ground squirrels sleep during arousals from hibernation. Neurosci. Lett. 128:1991;265-268.
34. Damasio A. R., Damasio H. Cortical systems for retrieval of concrete knowledge: the convegence zone framework. Koch C., Davis J. L. Large-scale neuronal theories of the brain. 1994;61-74 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
35. Dawbin W. H. The tuatara in its natural habitat. Endeavour. 21:1962;16-24.
36. Dawbin W. H. The tuatara Sphenodon punctatus (Reptilia: Rhynchocephalia): A review. Newman D. G. New Zealand herpetology. 1982;149-181 New Zealand Wildlife Service, Wellington.
37. Desimone R., Miller E. K., Chelazzi L., Lueschow A. Multiple memory systems in the visual cortex. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;475-486 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
38. Diamond I. T. Changing views of the organization and evolution of the visual pathways. Morrison A. R., Strick P. L. Changing concepts of the nervous system. 1982;201-233 Academic Press, New York.
39. Diamond I. T., Hall W. C. Evolution of neocortex. Science. 164:1969;251-262.
40. Dudai Y. The Neurobiology of memory. 1989;Oxford University Press, Oxford.
41. Duke-Elder S. System of ophthalmology. The eye in evolution. I:1958;Henry Kimpton, London.
42. Duncan J. Attention, intelligence and the frontal lobes. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;721-733 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
43. Eichenbaum H., Otto T., Cohen N. J. Two functional components of the hippocampal memory system. Behav. Brain Sci. 17:1994;449-518.
44. Eigemann C. H. Cave vertebrates of America. 1906;Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.
45. Edelman G. M. Neural darwinism. 1987;Basic Books, Inc, New York.
46. Engelage J., Bischof H.-J. The organization of the tectofugal pathway in birds: A comparative review. Zeigler H. P., Bischof H.-J. Vision, brain and behavior in birds. 1993;138-158 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
47. Ephron H. S., Carrington P. Rapid eye movement sleep and cortical homeostasis. Psychol. Rev. 73:1966;500-526.
48. Everson C. A. Functional consequences of sustained sleep deprivation in the rat. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;43-54.
49. Fischman J. Why mammalian ears went on the move. Science. 270:1995;1436.
50. Flanigan W. F. Jr. Sleep and wakefulness in iguanid lizards. Brain, Behav. Evol. 8:1973;401-436.
51. Flanigan W. F. Jr., Wilcox R. H., Rechtschaffen A. The EEG and behavioral continuum of the crocodilian, Caiman sclerops. Electroencephalog. Clin. Neurophysiol. 34:1973;521-538.
52. Flicker C., McCarley R. W., Hobson J. A. Aminergic neurons: State control and plasticity in three model systems. Cell Molec. Neurobiol. 1:1981;123-166.
53. Fox S. E., Wolfson S., Ranck J. B. Jr. Investigating the mechanisms of hippocampal theta rhythms: Approaches and progress. Seifert W. Neurobiology of the hippocampus. 1983;303-319 Academic Press, New York.
54. Freeman W. J., Maurer K. Advances in brain theory give new directions to the use of the technologies of brain mapping in behavior studies. Maurer K. Topographic brain mapping of EEG and evoked potentials. 1989;118-126 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
55. Gaillard J. M. Electrophysiological semeiology of sleep. Experientia. 36:1980;3-6.
56. Getting P. A. Emerging principles governing the operation of neural networks. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 12:1989;185-204.
57. Glenn L. L. Brainstem and spinal control of lower limb motoneurons with special reference to phasic events and startle reflexes. McGinty D., Drucker-Colin R., Morrison A., Parmeggiani P. L. Brain mechanisms of sleep. 1985;81-95 Raven Press, New York.
58. Goetz B. G. R., Thomas B. W. Use of annual growth and activity patterns to assess management procedures for captive tuatara. New Zealand J. Zool. 21:1994;473-485.
59. Gray J. A. The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. 1982;Clarendon Press, Oxford.
60. Grigonis A. M., Murphy E. H. The effects of epileptic cortical activity on the development of callosal projections. Dev. Brain Res. 77:1994;251-255.
61. Grillner S. Control of locomotion in bipeds, tetrapods and fish. Brooks V. B. Handbook of physiology. 1981;1179-1236 American Physiological Society, Bethesda.
62. Grobstein P. Organization in the sensorimotor interface: A case study with increased resolution. Ewert J.-P., Arbib M. A. Visuomotor coordination. 1987;537-568 Plenum Press, New York.
63. Halász P., Ujszászi J. A study of K-complexes in humans: Are they related to information processing during sleep? Koella W. P., Obál F., Schulz H., Visser P. Sleep '86. 1988;79-83 Fischer-Verlag, Stuttgart.
64. Harris-Warrick R. M., Marder E. Modulation of neural networks for behavior. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 14:1991;39-57.
65. Hartmann E. L. The functions of sleep. 1973;Yale University Press, New Haven.
66. Hartse K. M. Sleep in insects and nonmammalian vertebrates. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;95-104 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
67. Hartse K. M., Rechtschaffen A. The effect of amphetamine, nembural, alpha-methyl tyrosine, and parachlorphenylalanine on the sleep-related spike activity of the tortoise, Eochelone carbonaria, and on the cat ventral hippocampus spike. Brain, Behav. Evol. 21:1982;199-222.
68. Heatwole H. Reptile ecology. 1976;University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Queensland.
69. Henry G. H., Vidyasagar T. R. Evolution of mammalian visual pathways. Cronly-Dillon J. R., Gregory R. L. Evolution of the eye and visual system. 1991;442-465 CRC Press, Inc, Boston.
70. Herrick C. J. The brain of the tiger salamander, Ambistoma tigrinum. 1948;University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
71. Hillenius W. J. Turbinates in therapsids: Evidence for late Permian origins of mammalian endothermy. Evol. 48:1994;207-229.
72. Himstedt W. Die Tagesperiodik von salamandriden. Oecologia. 8:1971;194-208.
73. Hobson J. A. Sleep. 1989;Scientific American Library, New York.
74. Hobson J. A. Activation, input source, and modulation: A neurocognitive model of the state of the brain-mind. Boutzin R. R., Kihlstrom J. F., Schacter D. L. Sleep and cognition. 1990;25-40 Am. Psychological Assoc, Washington, D. C.
75. Hobson J. A. Sleep and dreaming. J. Neurosci. 10:1990;371-382.
76. Hobson J. A., McCarley R. W. The brain as a dream state generator: an activation-synthesis hypothesis of the dream process. Am. J. Psychiat. 134:1977;1335-1348.
77. Hobson J. A., Schmajuk N. A. Brain state and plasticity: An integration of the reciprocal interaction model of sleep cycle oscillation with attentional models of hippocampal function. Archs. Ital. Biol. 126:1988;209-224.
78. Hopson J. A. Synapsid evolution and the radiation of non-eutherian mammals. Prothero D. R., Schoch R. M. Major features of vertebrate evolution. 1994;190-219 The Paleontological Society and University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
79. Horne J. Why we sleep. 1988;Oxford University Press, Oxford.
80. Hughes J. R. EEG in clinical practice. 1982;Butterworths, London.
81. Ingle D. J. Functions of subcortical visual systems in vertebrates and the evolution of higher visual mechanisms. Cronly-Dillon J. R., Gregory R. L. Evolution of the eye and visual system. 1991;152-164 CRC Press, Inc, Boston.
82. Ishida A. T. GABA-activated currents in ganglion cells isolated from goldfish retina. Weiler R., Osborne N. O. Neurobiology of the inner retina. 1988;349-361 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
83. Jacobson M. Developmental neurobiology. 1991;Plenum Press, New York.
84. Jarvis J. U. M. Eusociality in a mammal: Cooperative breeding in naked mole rat colonies. Science. 212:1981;571-573.
85. Jerison H. J. Evolution of the brain and intelligence. 1973;Academic Press, New York.
86. Jevning R., Wallace R. K., Beiderbach M. The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 16:1992;415-424.
87. Jones E. G. Modern views of cellular thalamic mechanisms. Bentivoglio M., Spreafico R. Cellular thalamic mechanisms. 1988;1 Excerpta Medica, New York.
88. Jouvet M. Recherches sur les structures nerveuses et les mecanismes responsables des different phases du sommeil physiologique. Archs. Ital. Biol. 100:1962;125-206.
89. Jouvet M. The function of dreaming: A neurophysiologist's point of view. Gazzaniga M. S., Blakemore C. Handbook of Psychobiology. 1975;499-527 Academic Press, New York.
90. Jouvet-Mounier D., Astic L., Lacote D. Ontogenesis of the states of sleep in rat, cat, and guinea pig during the first postnatal month. Dev. Psychobiol. 2:1970;216-239.
91. Kaas J. H. The organization and evolution of neocortex. Wise S. P. Higher brain functions. 1987;347-378 Wiley, New York.
92. Kaas J. H. Why does the brain have so many visual areas? J. Cognitive Neurosci. 1:1989;121-134.
93. Kaas J. H. Archotan affinities as reflected in the visual system. Szalay F. S., Novacek M. J., McKenna M. C. Mammal phylogeny. 2:1993;115-128 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
94. Kaas J. H. The reorganization of sensory and motor maps in adult mammals. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;51-71 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
95. Kalil R. E., Dubin M. W. The role of action potentials in the morphological development of retinogeniculate connections in the cat. Bentivoglio M., Spreafico R. Cellular thalamic mechanisms. 1988;479-488 Excerpta Medica, New York.
96. Kare M. R., Rogers J. G. Jr. Sense organs. Sturkie P. D. Avian physiology. 3rd ed. 1976;29-52 Springer-Verlag, New York.
97. Karmanova I. G. Evolution of sleep. 1982;Karger, New York.
98. Karmanova I. G., Lazarev S. G. Stages of sleep evolution (facts and hypotheses). Waking Sleeping. 3:1979;137-147.
99. Karten H. J. Visual lemniscal pathways in birds. Granda A. M., Maxwell J. H. Neural mechanisms of behavior in the pigeon. 1979;409-430 Plenum Press, New York.
100. Karten H. J. Homology and evolutionary origins of the 'neocortex'. Brain, Behav. Evol. 38:1991;264-272.
101. Karten H. J., Nauta W. J. H. Organization of retinothalamic projections in the pigeon and owl. Anat. Rec. 160:1968;373.
102. Kavanau J. L. Lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars: Behavior and evolution. 1987;Science Software Systems, Inc, Los Angeles.
103. Kavanau J. L. Sleep and dynamic stabilization of neural circuitry: A review and synthesis. Behav. Brain Res. 63:1994;111-126.
104. Kavanau J. L. Memory, sleep, and dynamic stabilization of neural circuitry: Evolutionary perspectives. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 20:1996;289-311.
105. Kemp T. S. Mammal-like reptiles and the origin of mammals. 1982;Academic Press, New York.
106. Koella W. P. Sleep: Its nature and physiological organization. 1967;C. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
107. Kramer M. Nightmares (dream disturbances) in post-traumatic stress disorder: Implications for a theory of dreaming. Boutzin R. R., Kihlstrom J. F., Schacter D. L. Sleep and cognition. 1990;190-202 American Psychological Association, Washington, D. C.
108. Krueger J. M., Obál F. Jr., Kapas L., Fang J. Brain organization and sleep function. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;177-185.
109. Kuiken O., Sikora S. The impact of dreams on waking thoughts and feelings. Moffitt A., Kramer M., Hoffman R. The functions of dreaming. 1993;419-476 State University of New York Press, Albany.
110. La Berge S. Lucid dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep. Boutzin R. R., Kihlstrom J. F., Schacter D. L. Sleep and cognition. 1990;109-126 American Psychological Association, Washington, D. C.
111. Laidlaw J., Stanton J. B. Lord Brain The EEG in clinical practice. 1966;Livingstone, London.
112. Laming P. R. Central representation of arousal. Ewert J.-P., Arbib M. A. Visuomotor coordination. 1987;693-727 Plenum Press, New York.
113. LeDoux, J. E. Brain mechanisms of emotion and emotional learning. Current Opinion Neurobiol. 2:191-107; 1992.
114. Levy W. B., Colbert C. M., Desmond N. L. Elemental adaptive processes of neurons and synapses: A statistical/computational perspective. Gluck M. A., Rummelhart D. E. Neuroscience and connectionist theory. 1990;187-235 Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
115. Lillegraven J. A. Introduction. Lillegraven J. A., Kielen-Jaworowska Z., Clemens W. A. Mesozoic mammals. 1979;1-6 University of California Press, Berkeley.
116. Lisman J., Idiart M. A. P. Storage of 7 ± 2 short-term memories in oscillatory subcycles. Science. 267:1995;1512-1515.
117. Llinás R. R. The intrinsic electrophysiological properties of mammalian neurons: Insights into central nervous system function. Science. 242:1988;1654-1664.
118. Llinás R. R., Paré D. Of dreaming and wakefulness. Neurosci. 44:1991;521-535.
119. Llinás R. R., Ribary U. Perception as an oneiric-like state modulated by the senses. Koch C., Davis J. L. Large-scale neuronal theories of the brain. 1994;111-124 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
120. Lopes da Silva F. Neural mechanisms underlying brain waves: From neural membranes to networks. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. 79:1991;81-93.
121. Lopes da Silva F., Wadman F. H., Arnolds D. E., Veeken C., Holsheimer J. H. Behavior and modulation of local circuits. Reinoso-Suárez F., Ajmone-Marsan C. Cortical integration. 1984;147-170 Raven Press, New York.
122. Mahowald M. W., Schenck C. H. REM sleep behavioral disorder. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;574-588 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
123. Mamelak A. M., Hobson J. A. Dream bizarreness and the cognitive correlate of altered neuronal behavior in REM sleep. J. Cognitive Neurosci. 1:1992;201-222.
124. Maquet P. Sleep function(s) and cerebral metabolism. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;75-83.
125. Marks G. A., Shaffery J. P., Oksenberg A., Speciale S. G., Roffwarg H. P. A functional role for REM sleep in brain maturation. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;1-11.
126. Marr D. Simple memory: A theory for the archicortex. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. B262:1971;73-81.
127. Martin G. R. The eye. King A. S., McLelland J. Form and function in birds. 1985;311-373 Academic Press, New York.
128. Masterton R. B., Glendenning K. K. Phylogeny of the vertebrate sensory systems. Handbook Behav. Neurobiol. 102:1978;1-71.
129. Maunsell J. H. R. The brain's visual world: Representation of visual target in cerebral cortex. Science. 270:1995;764-769.
130. McCarley R. W. Dreams and the biology of sleep. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;373-383 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
131. McClelland J. L., McNaughton B. L., O'Reilly R. C. Why there are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: Insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and memory. Psychol. Rev. 102:1995;419-457.
132. McGaugh J. L., Introini-Collison I. B., Cahill L., Kim M., Liang K. C. Involvement of the amygdala in neuromodulatory influences on memory storage. Aggleton J. P. The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory, and mental disfunction. 1992;431-451 Wiley-Liss, New York.
133. McNaughton B. L., Nadel L. Hebb-Marr networks and the neurobiological representation of actions in space. Gluck M. A., Rummelhart D. E. Neuroscience and connectionist theory. 1990;1-63 Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
134. Meddis R. On the function of sleep. Anim. Behav. 23:1975;676-691.
135. Meddis R. The evolution of sleep. Mayes A. Sleep mechanisms and functions in humans and animals: An evolutionary perspective. 1983;57-106 Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Ltd, London.
136. Mey J., Thanos S. Developmental anatomy of the chick retinotectal projection. Zeigler H. P., Bischof H.-J. Vision, brain and behavior in birds. 1993;174-194 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
137. Meyer-Rochow V. B., The K. L. Visual predation by tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) on the beach beetle (Chaerodes trachyscelides) as a selective force in the production of distinct colour morphs. Tuatara. 31:1991;1-7.
138. Michael C. R. Retinal processing of visual images. Sci. Amer. 220:1969;104-114.
139. Michael C. R. Visual receptive fields of single neurons in superior colliculus of the ground squirrel. J. Neurophysiol. 35:1972;815-832.
140. Mirmiran M. The function of fetal/neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;13-22.
141. Mishkin M. A memory system in the monkey. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. B298:1982;85-95.
142. Moscovitch M. Models of consciousness and memory. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;1341-1356 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
143. Mountcastle V. B. An organizing principle for cerebral function: The unit module and the distributed system. Edelman G. M., Mountcastle V. B. The mindful brain: Cortical organization and the group-selective theory of higher brain function. 1978;7-50 MIT Press, Cambridge.
144. Mukhametov L. M. Sleep in marine mammals. Exp. Brain Res. 8:1984;227-236.
145. Mukhametov L. M. Unihemispheric slow wave sleep in the brain of dolphins and seals. Koella W. P., Obál F., Schulz H., Visser P. Sleep '86. 1988;67-75 Fischer-Verlag, Stuttgart.
146. Nagy K. Personal communication. 1996.
147. Neville H. J. Developmental specificity in neurocognitive development in humans. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;219-231 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
148. Niedermeyer E., Lopes da Silva F. Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications and related fields. 3rd ed. 1993;Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
149. Novacek M. J. A pocketful of fossils. Nat. Hist. 103:1994;41-43.
150. O'Leary D. M., Gerfen C. R., Cowan M. W. The development and restriction of the ipsilateral retinofugal projection in the chick. Dev. Brain Res. 10:1983;93-109.
151. Oleksenko A. I., Mukhametov L. M., Polyakova I. G., Supin A. Y., Kovalzo V. M. Unihemispheric sleep deprivation in bottle nose dolphins. J. Sleep Res. 1:1992;40-44.
152. Ookawa T. The avian wakefulness and sleep on the basis of recent electroencephalographic observations. Poultry Sci. 51:1972;1565-1574.
153. Otto T., Eichenbaum H., Wiener S. I., Wible C. G. Learning-related patterns of CA1 spike trains parallel stimulation parameters optimal for inducing hippocampal long-term potentiation. Hippocampus. 1:1991;181-192.
154. Pavlides C., Greenstein Y. J., Grudman M., Winson J. Long-term potentiation in the dentate gyrus is induced preferentially on the positive phase of theta-rhythm. Brain Res. 439:1988;383-387.
155. Pavlides C., Winson J. Influences of hippocampal place cell firing in the awake state on the activity of these cells during subsequent sleep episodes. J. Neurosci. 9:1989;2907-2918.
156. Petsche H., Rappelsberger P. Is there any message hidden in the human EEG? Basar E., Bullock T. H. Induced rhythms in the brain. 1992;103-116 Birkhäser, Boston.
157. Plum F. Coma and related global disturbances of the human conscious state. Cerebral Cortex. 9:1991;359-425.
158. Polyak S. The vertebrate visual system. 1968;University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
159. Pompeiano O. Sensory inhibition during motor activity in sleep. Yahr M. D., Purpura D. P. Neurophysiological basis of normal and abnormal motor activities. 1967;323-375 Raven Press, New York.
160. Poulson T. L. Cave adaptation in Amblyopsid fishes. Amer. Midl. Nat. 70:1963;257-290.
161. Rafal R., Robertson L. The neurology of visual attention. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;625-648 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
162. Rakic P. Corticogenesis in human and non-human primates. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;127-145 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
163. Rauschecker J. P. Developmental plasticity and memory. Behav. Brain Res. 66:1995;7-12.
164. Reiner P. B. Correlation analysis of central noradrenergic neuronal activity and sympathetic tone in behaving cats. Brain Res. 378:1986;86-96.
165. Repérant J., Rio J.-P., Ward R., Hergueta S., Miceli D., Lemire M. Comparative analysis of the primary visual system of reptiles. Gans C., Ulinski P. S. Biology of the reptilia, sensorimotor integration. 1992;175-366 University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
166. Ridgway S. H. Physiological observations on dolphin brains. Shusterman R. J., Thomas J. A., Wood F. G. Dolphin cognition and behavior: A comparative approach. 1986;31-59 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
167. Rigatto H. Control of breathing during sleep in the fetus and neonate. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;237-248 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
168. Rigatto H., More M., Cates D. Fetal breathing and behavior measured through a double-wall Plexiglas window in sheep. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:1986;160-164.
169. Robb J. The tuatara. 1977;Meadowfield Press, Durham.
170. Roffwarg H. P., Muzio J. N., Dement W. C. Ontogenetic development of the human sleep-dream cycle. Science. 152:1966;604-619.
171. Rose G. M., Dunwiddie T. V. Induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation using physiologically patterned stimulation. Neurosci. Lett. 69:1986;244-248.
172. Roth G. Visual behavior in salamanders. 1987;Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
173. Rowe M. H. Functional organization of the retina. Dreher B., Robinson S. R. Neuroanatomy of the visual pathways and their development. 1991;1-68 CRC Press, Inc, Boston.
174. Rowe T. Phylogenetic systematics in the early history of mammals. Szalay F. S., Novacek M. J., McKenna M. C. Mammal phylogeny. 2:1993;129-145 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
175. Rowe T. Coevolution of the mammalian middle ear and neocortex. Science. 273:1996;651-654.
176. Ruckebusch Y. The relevance of drowsiness in the circadian cycle of the farm animal. Anim. Behav. 20:1972;637-643.
177. Saint Girons H., Bell B. D., Newman D. G. Observations on the activity and thermoregulation of the tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus (Reptilia: Rhynchocephalia), on Stephens Island. New Zealand J. Zool. 7:1980;551-556.
178. Salva M. A. Q., Guilleminault C. Olivopontocerebral degeneration, abnormal sleep, and REM sleep without atonia. Neurol. 36:1986;576-577.
179. Savic I. R., Nevo E. The spalacidae: evolutionary history, speciation and population biology. Nevo E., Reig O. A. Evolution of subterranean mammals at the organismal and molecular levels. 1990;129-153 Alan R. Liss, New York.
180. Schenck C. H., Bundlie S. R., Ettinger M. G., Mahowald M. W. Chronic behavioral disorders of human REM sleep: A new category of parasomnia. Sleep. 9:1986;293-308.
181. Schiller P. H. On the specificity of neurons and visual areas. Behav. Brain Res. 76:1996;21-35.
182. Scott D. Understanding EEG. 1976;Duckworth, London.
183. Sheldon S. H., Spire J.-P., Levy H. B. Pediatric sleep medicine. 1992;W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
184. Shimamura A. P. Memory and frontal lobe function. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;803-813 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
185. Shimizu T., Inami Y., Sugita Y., Iigima S., Teshima Y., Matsuo R., Yasoshima A., Egawa I., Okawa M., Tashiro T., Hishikawa Y. REM sleep without muscle atonia (stage-1 REM) and its relation to delerious behavior during sleep in patients with degenerative diseases involving the brain stem. Japan. J. Psychiat. 44:1990;681-692.
186. Shimizu T., Karten H. J. Central visual pathways in reptiles and birds: Evolution of the visual system. Cronly-Dillon J. R., Gregory R. L. Evolution of the eye and visual system. 1991;421-441 CRC Press, Inc, 1991.
187. Shouse M. N. Epileptic seizure manifestations during sleep. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;400-406 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
188. Siegel J. M. Brainstem mechanisms generating REM sleep. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;125-144 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
189. Siegel J. M. Phylogeny and the function of REM sleep. Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;29-34.
190. Siegel J. M., Manger P. R., Nienhuis R., Fahringer H. M., Pettigrew J. D. The echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus combines REM and NREM aspects in a single sleep state: Implications for the evolution of sleep. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;3500-3506.
191. Siegel J. M., McGinty D. J. Pontine reticular formation neurons: Relationship of discharge to motor activity. Science. 196:1977;678-680.
192. Singer W. Time as coding space in neocortical processing: A hypothesis. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;91-104 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
193. Skinner J. E., Molnar M., Harper R. M. Higher cerebral regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory functions. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;231-251 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
194. Snyder F. Evolutionary theories of sleep: What, which, and whither? Chase M. The sleeping brain. 1972;40-57 Brain Research Institute, UCLA, Los Angeles.
195. Spelke E. S., Vishton P., von Holsten C. Object perception, object-directed action and physical knowledge in infancy. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;165-179 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
196. Spencer A. N. Chemical and electrical synaptic transmission in the Cnidaria. Anderson P. A. V. Evolution of the first nervous systems. 1989;33-53 Plenum Press, 1989.
197. Stein B. E., Wallace M. T., Meredith M. A. Neural mechanisms mediating attention and orientation to multisensory cues. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;683-702 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
198. Steriade M. New vistas on the morphology, chemical transmitters, and physiological actions of the ascending brainstem reticular system. Archs. Ital. Biol. 126:1988;225-238.
199. Steriade M. Brain electrical activity and sensory processing during waking and sleep states. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1989;86-103 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
200. Steriade M. Neuromodulatory systems of thalamus and neocortex. Seminars Neurosci. 7:1995;361-370.
201. Steriade M., Contreras D., Curró Dossi R., Num̃ez A. The slow (<1 Hz) oscillation in reticular thalamic and thalamocortical neurons: scenario of sleep rhythm generation in interacting thalamic and neocortical networks. J. Neurosci. 13:1993;3284-3299.
202. Steriade M., Deschênes M., Wyzinski P., Hallá J. Y. Input-output organization of the motor cortex during sleep and waking. Petre-Quadens O., Schlag J. Basic sleep mechanisms. 1974;144-200 Academic Press, New York.
203. Steriade M., Hobson J. A. Neural activity during the sleep waking cycle. Prog. Neurobiol. 6:1976;155-376.
204. Steriade M., Iosif G., Apostol V. Responsiveness of thalamic and cortical motor relays during arousal and various stages of sleep. J. Neurophysiol. 32:1969;251-265.
205. Steriade M., Jones E. G., Llinás R. R. Thalamic oscillations and signaling. 1990;Wiley, New York.
206. Steriade M., McCarley R. W. Brainstem control of wakefulness and sleep. 1990;Plenum Press, New York.
207. Steriade M., McCormick D. A., Sejnowski T. J. Thalamocortical oscillations in the sleeping and aroused brain. Science. 262:1993;679-685.
208. Susic V. T., Kovacevic R. M. Sleep patterns in the owl Strix aluco. Physiol. Behav. 11:1973;313-317.
209. Swanson L. W., Köhler C., Björklund A. The limbic region: I. The septohippocampal system. Björklund A., Hökflet T., Swanson L. W. Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. Integrated systems of the CNS, part 1. 5:1987;125-277 Elsevier, New York.
210. Tauber E. S. The phylogeny of sleep. Weitzman E. D. Advances in sleep research. 1974;133-172 Wiley & Sons, New York.
211. Thanos S., Bonhoeffer F. Development of the transient ipsilateral retinotectal projection in the chick embryo: Numerical fluorescence-microscopic analysis. J. Comp. Neurol. 224:1984;407-414.
212. Thatcher R. W. Spatial synchronization of brain electrical activity related to cognitive information processing. Thompson R. F., Hicks L. H., Shvyrkov V. B. Neural mechanisms of goal-directed behavior in learning. 1980;555-560 Academic Press, New York.
213. Thompson I. Considering the evolution of vertebrate neural retina. Cronly-Dillon J. R., Gregory R. L. Evolution of the eye and visual system. 1991;136-151 CRC Press, Inc, Boston.
214. Tobler I. Deprivation of sleep and rest in vertebrates and invertebrates. Inoué S., Borbély A. A. Endogenous sleep substances and sleep regulation. 1985;57-66 Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo.
215. Tobler I. Is sleep fundamentally different between mammalian species? Behav. Brain Res. 69:1995;35-41.
216. Trachsel L., Edgar D. M., Heller H. C. Are ground squirrels sleep deprived during hibernation? Am. J. Physiol. 260:1991;R1123-1129.
217. Tradardi V. Sleep in the pigeon. Archs. Ital. Biol. 104:1966;516-521.
218. Underwood G. The eye. Gans G., Parsons T. S. Biology of the reptilia. 2:1970;1-97 Academic Press, New York.
219. Ungerleider L. G. Functional brain imaging studies of cortical mechanisms for memory. Science. 270:1995;769-775.
220. Vandel A. Biospeleology. 1965;Pergamon Press, London.
221. Van Essen D. C., Anderson C. H., Felleman D. J. Information processing in the primate visual system: An integrated systems perspective. Science. 255:1992;419-423.
222. Vertes R. P. Brainstem modulation of the hippocampus. Anatomy, physiology and significance. Isaacson R. L., Pribram K. H. The hippocampus. 4:1986;41-75 Plenum Press, New York.
223. Verzeano M. Activity of neuronal networks in cognitive function. Thompson R. F., Hicks L. H., Shvyrkov V. B. Neural mechanisms of goal-directed behavior in learning. 1980;353-373 Academic Press, New York.
224. Vidyasagar T. R. Interactions between the visual and other sensory modalities and their development. Cronly-Dillon J. R. Development and plasticity of the visual system. 1991;369-385 Macmillan, London.
225. Voneida T. J., Sligar C. M. A comparative neuroanatomic study of retinal projections in two fishes: Astyanax hubbsi (the blind cave fish) and Astyanax mexicanus. J. Comp. Neurol. 165:1976;89-106.
226. Walker J. M., Berger R. J. Sleep as an adaptation for energy conservation functionally and physiologically related to hibernation and shallow torpor. Prog. Brain Res. 53:1980;255-278.
227. Walls G. L. The evolutionary history of eye movements. Vis. Res. 2:1962;69-80.
228. Walls G. L. The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. 1967;Hafner, New York.
229. Weber E. Uber Ruhelagen von Fischen. Z. Tierpsychol. 18:1961;517-533.
230. Weinberger N. M. Retuning the brain by fear conditioning. Gazzaniga M. S. The cognitive neurosciences. 1995;1071-1079 The MIT Press, Cambridge.
231. West R. W., Dowling J. E. Synapses on to different morphological types of ganglion cells. Science. 178:1972;510-512.
232. White F. N. Circulation. Gans C. Biology of the Reptilia. 1976;275-334 Academic Press, New York.
233. Williams R. L., Karacan I., Hursch C. J. Electroencephalography (EEG) of human sleep: Clinical application. 1974;Wiley, New York.
234. Winson J. Brain and psyche: The biology of the unconscious. 1985;Anchor Press, Doubleday, New York.
235. Winson J. The biology and function of REM sleep. Current Opinion Neurobiol. 3:1993;243-248.
236. Winson J., Abzug C. Neuronal transmission through hippocampal pathways dependent on behavior. J. Neurophysiol. 41:1978;716-732.
237. Young M. P. Objective analysis of the topological organization of the primate cortical visual system. Nature. 358:1992;152-155.
238. Zeki S. M. Functional specialization in the visual cortex of the rhesus monkey. Nature. 274:1978;423-428.
239. Zepelin H. Mammalian sleep. Kryger M. H., Roth T., Dement W. C. Principles and practice of sleep medicine. 1994;69-80 W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia.