Pteridines and neuroimmune function and pathology

Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 69-86

  Patarca, Roberto ^a   Bell, Iris R ^b   Fletcher, Mary Ann ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b SOUTHERN ARIZONA VA HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; BIOPTERIN; CATECHOLAMINE; DOPAMINE; FOLIC ACID; NEOPTERIN; NEUROTRANSMITTER; NORADRENALIN; PTERIDINE DERIVATIVE; SEROTONIN; TETRAHYDROBIOPTERIN;

BIOSYNTHESIS; BODY FLUID; CATECHOLAMINE SYNTHESIS; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; COGNITIVE DEFECT; HUMAN; NEUROIMMUNOLOGY; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; NONHUMAN; REVIEW;

EID: 0031017419     PISSN: 10573321     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1300/J092v03n01_06     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Shanks N, Francis D, Zalcman S, Meaney MJ, Anisman H: Alterations in central catecholamines associated with immune responding in adult and aged mice. Brain Res 1994; 666(1): 77-87.
2. Vasina IG, Frolov EP, Serebriakov NG: Sympathico-adrenal system activity in a primary immune response. Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii i Imunobiologii 1975; 0(9): 88-92.
3. Besedovsky H, del Rey A, Sorkin E, Da Prada M, Burri R, Honegger C: The immune response evokes changes in brain noradrenergic neurons. Science 1983; 221(4610): 564-566.
4. Boranic M, Pericic D, Radacic M, Poljak-Blasi M, Sverko V, Miljenovic G: Immunological and neuroendocrine responses of rats to prolonged or repeated stress. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 1982; 36(1): 23-28.
5. Boranic M: The central nervous system and immunity. Lijecnicki Vjesnik 1990; 112(9-10): 329-334.
6. Basso AM, Depiante-Depaoli M, Molina VA: Chronic variable stress facilitates tumoral growth: reversal by imipramine administration. Life Sciences 1992; 50(23): 1789-1796.
7. Foley FW, Traugott U, LaRocca NG, Smith CR, Perlman KR, Caruso LS, Scheinberg LC: A prospective study of depression and immune dysregulation in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol 1992; 49(3): 238-244.
8. De Souza EB: Corticotropin-releasing factor and interleukin-1 receptors in the brain-endocrine-immune axis. Role in stress response and infection. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1993; 697: 9-27.
9. Irwin M: Stress-induced immune suppression. Role of the autonomic nervous system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1993; 697: 203-218.
10. Weiss JM, Quan N, Sundar SK: Widespread activation and consequences of interleukin-1 in the brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1994; 741: 338-357.
11. Herbert TB, Cohen S: Depression and immunity: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull 1993; 113:472-486.
12. Irwin M, Patterson T, Smith TL, Caldwell C, Brown SA, Gillin JC, Grant I: Reduction of immune function in life stress and depression. Biological Psychiatry 1990; 27: 222-230.
13. Irwin M, Caldwell C, Smith TL, Brown S, Schuckit MA, Gillin C: Major depressive disorder, alcoholism, and reduced natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Archives of General Psychiatry 1990; 47: 713-719.
14. Schleifer SJ, Keller SE, Bond RN, Cohen J, Stein M: Major depressive disorder: role of age, sex, severity and hospitalization. Archives of General Psychiatry 1989; 46: 81-87.
15. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Acosta E, Gomez F, Lechin E, Arocha L: Distal colon motility and clinical parameters in depression. J Affect Dis 1983; 5: 19-26.
16. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Gomez F, Arocha L, Acosta E, Lechin E: Distal colon motility as a predictor of antidepressant response to fenfluramine, imipramine and clomipramine. J Affect Dis 1983; 5: 27-35.
17. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Jakubowicz et al.: Effects of clonidine on blood pressure, noradrenaline, cortisol, growth hormone and prolactin plasma levels in low and high intestinal tone depressed patients. Neuroendocrinology 1985; 41: 156-162.
18. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Jackubowicz D et al.: Role of stress in the exacerbation of chronic illness: Effects of clonidine administration on blood pressure and plasma norepinehrine, cortisol, growth hormone and prolactin concentrations. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1987; 12: 117-129.
19. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Amat J, Lechin M: Central neuronal pathways involved in depressive syndrome: Experimental findings. In Neurochemistry and Clinical Disorders: Circuitry of Some Psychiatric and Psychosomatic Syndromes. Lechin F, vand der Dijs B (eds.), Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1989; 65-89.
20. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Rada I et al.: Plasma neurotransmitters and cortisol in duodenal ulcer patients: role of stress. Dig Dis Sci 1990; 35: 1313-1319.
21. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin A et al.: Doxepin therapy for postpandrial hypoglycemic patients: neurochemical, hormonal and metabolic disturbances. Clin Sci 1991; 80: 373-384.
22. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin M et al.: Effects of an oral glucose load on plasma neurotransmitters in humans: Involvement of REM sleep? Neuropsychobiology 1992; 26: 4-11.
23. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin M, Jara H, Lechin A, Lechin-Baez S, Orozco B, Rada I, Cabrera A, Arocha L, Jimenez V, Leon G: Plasma neurotransmitters throughout an oral glucose tolerance test in essential hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens 1993; 15: 209-240.
24. Lechin F, van der Dijs B, Lechin A et al.: Plasma neurotransmitters and cortisol in chronic illness: Role of stress. J Med 1994; 25: 181-192.
25. Werner ER, Werner-Felmayer G, Fuchs D, Hausen A, Reibnegger G, Yim JJ, Pfeiderer W, Wachter H: Tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthetic activities in human macrophages, fibroblasts, THP-1, and T 24 cells. GTP-cyclohydrolase I is stimulated by interferon-γ, and 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase and sepiapterin reductase are constitutively present. J Biol Chem 1990; 265(6): 3189-3192.
26. Klatt P, Schmid M, Leopold E., Schmidt K, Werner ER, Mayer B: The pteridine binding site of bran nitric oxide synthase. Tetrahydrobiopterin binding kinetics, specificity, and allosteric interaction with the substrate domain. J Biol Chem 1994; 269(19): 13861-13866.
27. Brand MP, Heales SJ, Land JM, Clark JB: Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency and brain nitric oxide synthase in the hph I mouse. J Inherited Metabolic Dis 1995; 18(1): 33-39.
28. Hirayama K, Lentz SI, Kapatos G: Tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor biosynthesis: GTP cyclohydrolase I mRNA expression in rat brain and superior cervical ganglia. J Neurochem 1993; 61(3): 1006-1014.
29. Tani Y, Ishihara T, Kanai T, Ohno T, Watanabe Y, Andersson J, Lilija A, Westerberg G, Hartvig P, Langstrom B: 6R-L-erythro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin (R-THBP, SUN 0588) acts on the brain muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors as evaluated by positron emission tomography (PET) in rhesus monkey. Adv Exp Med & Biol 1993; 338: 331-334.
30. Tani Y, Ishihara T, Kanai T, Ohno T, Onoe H, Watanabe Y, Andersson J, Lilija A, Westerberg G, Hartvig P et al.: Positron emission tomography (PET) study: the effects of 6R-L-erythro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin (R-THBP, SUN 0588) on the central dopamine D1, D2 and D3 receptors in rhesus monkey. Adv Exp Med & Biol 1993; 338: 327-330.
31. Watanabe Y, Onoe H, Tanaka M, Kobayashi K, Suziki K, Tani Y, Miwa S, Inoue O: Effect of 6R-tetrahydrobiopterin on the central muscarinic cholinergic receptor as evaluated by positron emission tomography studies using rhesus monkey. Adv Exp Med & Biol 1993; 338: 335-338.
32. Koshimura K, Ohue T, Watanabe Y, Miwa S: Neurotransmitter releasing action of 6R-tetrahydrobiopterin. J Nutritional Sci & Vitaminology 1992; Spec No: 505-509.
33. Miwa S, Watanabe Y, Koshimura K, Masaki T: A novel function of tetrahydrobiopterin. Nippon Yakungaku Zasshi-Folia Pharmacologica Japonica 1992; 100(5): 367-381.
34. Bowers SW, Duch DS: In vivo measurement of dihydrofolate reductase and its inhibition by antifolates. Analytical Biochemistry 1988; 172(1): 169-175.
35. Levine RA, Kapatos G, Kaufman S, Milstien S: Immunological evidence for the requirement of sepiapterin reductase for tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis in brain. J Neurochem 1990; 54(4): 1218-1224.
36. Milstien S, Kaufman S: Immunological studies on the participation of 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin (2′-oxo) reductase, an aldose reductase, in tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989; 165(2): 845-850.
37. Park YS, Heizmann CW, Wermuth B, Levine RA, Steinerstauch P, Guzman J, Blau N: Human carbonyl and aldose reductases: new catalytic functions in tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 175(3): 738-744.
38. Furukawa Y, Nishi K, Mizuno Y, Narabayashi H: Significance of CSF biopterin and neopterin in hereditary progressive dystonia with marker diurnal fluctuation (HPD)-a clue to pathogenesis. No to Shinkei-Brain & Nerve 1995; 47(3): 261-268.
39. Barak M, Merzbach D, Gruener N: Neopterin measured in serum and tissue culture supernates by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay. Clin Chem 1989; 35(7): 1467-1471.
40. Fuchs D, Hausen A, Reibnegger G, Werner ER, Dierich MP, Wachter H: Neopterin as a marker for activated cell-mediated immunity [Review]. Immunol Today 1988; 9: 150-155.
41. Baier-Bitterlich G, Fuchs D, Murr C, Reibnegger G, Werner Felmayer G, Sgonc R, Bock G, Dierich MP, Wachter H: Effect of neopterin and 7,8-dihydroneopterin on tumor necrosis factor-α induced programmed cell death. FEBS Lett 1995; 364: 234-238.
42. Fuchs D, Muur C, Reibnegger G, Weiis G, Werner ER, Werner-Felmayer G, Wachter H: Nitric oxide synthase and antimicrobial armature of human macrophages. J Inf Dis 1994; 169: 224.
43. Fuchs D, Baier-Bitterlich G, Wachter H: Nitric oxide and AIDS dementia. New Engl J Med 1995; 333(8): 521-522.
44. Witteveen CF, Giovanelli J, Kaufman S: Reduction of quinonoid dihydrobiopterin to tetrahydrobiopterin by nitric oxide synthase. J Biol Chem 1996; 271(8): 4143-4147.
45. Nichol CA, Lee CL, Edelstein MP, Chao JY, Duch DS: Biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin by de novo and salvage pathways in adrenal medulla extracts, mammalian cell cultures, and rat brain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1983; 80(6): 1546-1550.
46. Millot F, Dhondt JL, Hayte JM, Bauters F: Impairment of cerebral biogenic amine synthesis in a patient receiving high-dose methotrexate. Am J Ped Hematol-Oncol 1992; 14(3): 276-278.
47. 2 intravenous methotrexate. Pediatric Res 1995; 37(2): 151-154.
48. Pinkerton CR, Smith I, Leeming RJ, Sama G, Hyland K, Curzon G, Chessells JM: Biopterin and neurotransmitter amine metabolism in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia receiving methotrexate therapy. J Pediatrics 1986; 108(3): 470-474.
49. Komori Y, Hyun J, Chiang K, Fukuto JM: The role of thiols in the apparent activation of rat brain nitric oxide synthase (NOS). J Biochem 1995; 117(4): 923-927.
50. Grobe H, Bartholome K, Milstien S, Kaufman S: Hyperphenylalaninaemia due to dihydropteridine reductase deficiency. Eur J Ped 1978; 129(2): 93-98.
51. Dhondt JL: Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiencies: preliminary analysis from an international survey. J Pediatrics 1984; 104(4): 501-508.
52. Kaufman S, Kapatos G, McInnes RR, Schulman JD, Rizzo WB: Use of tetrahydropterins in the treatment of hyperphenylalaninemia due to defective synthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin: evidence that peripherally administered tetrahydropterins enter the brain. Pediatrics 1982; 70(3): 376-380.
53. Kaufman S: Hyperphenylalaninaemia caused by defects in biopterin metabolism. J Inherited Metabolic Disease 1985; 8(Suppl 1): 20-27.
54. Smith I, Hyland K, Kendall B: Clinical role of pteridine therapy in tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency. J Inherited Metabolic Disease 1985; 8(Suppl 1): 39-45.
55. McInnes RR, Kaufman S, Warsh JJ, Van Loon GR, Milstien S, Kapatos G, Soldin S, Walsh P, MacGregor D, Hanley WB: Biopterin synthesis defect. Treatment with L-dopa and 5-hydroxytryptophan compared with therapy with a tetrahydropterin. J Clin Invest 1984; 73(2): 458-469.
56. Miwa S, Watanabe Y, Hayaishi O: 6R-L-erythro-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin as a regulator of dopamine and serotonin biosynthesis in the rat brain. Arch Biochem Biophys 1985; 239(1): 234-241.
57. Watts RW: Defects of tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis and their possible relationship to a disorder of purine metabolism (the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome). Advances in Enzyme Regulation 1985; 23: 25-28.
58. Suzuki S, Watanabe Y, Tsubokura S, Kagamiyama H, Hayaishi O: Decrease in tetrahydrobiopterin content and neurotransmitter amine biosynthesis in rat brain by an inhibitor of guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase. Brain Res 1988; 446(1): 1-10.
59. Hoganson G, Berlow S, Kaufman S, Milstien S, Schuett V, Matalon R, Naylor E, Seifert W: Biopterin synthesis defects: problems in diagnosis. Pediatrics 1984; 74(6): 1004-1011.
60. Duch DS, Bowers SW, Woolf JH, Davisson MT, Maltais LJ, Nichol CA: Differences in the metabolism of the aromatic amino acid hydroxylase cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin, in mutant mice with neurological and immunological defects. Biochemical Genetics 1986; 24(9-10): 657-668.
61. Duch DS, Bowers SW, Nichol CA: Endocrine-dependent regulation of tetrahydrobiopterin levels and guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase activity. Mol & Cellular Endocrinol 1986; 47(3): 209-216.
62. Furukawa Y, Shimadzu M, Rajput AH, Shimizu Y, Tagawa T, Mori H, Yokochi M, Narabayashi H, Hornykiewicz O, Mizuno Y, Kish SJ: GTP-cyclohydrolase I gene mutations in hereditary progressive and dopa-responsive dystonia. Annals Neurol 1996; 39(5): 609-617.
63. Furukawa Y, Mizuno Y, Narabayashi H: Early-onset parkinsonism with dystonia. Clinical and biochemical differences from hereditary progressive dystonia or DOPA-responsive dystonia. Adv Neurol 1996; 69: 327-337.
64. Ichinose H, Ohye T, Takahashi E, Seki N, Hori T, Segawa M, Nomura Y, Endo K, Tanaka H, Tsuji S et al.: Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the GTP cyclohydrolase I gene. Nature Genetics 1994; 8(3): 207-209.
65. Williams AC: Dopamine, dystonia, and the deficient co-factor. Lancet 1995; 345(8958): 1130.
66. Nagatsu T, Yamaguchi T, Rahman MK, Trocewiiicz J, Oka K, Hirata Y, Nagatsu I, Narabayashi H, Kondo T, lizuka R: Catecholamine-related enzymes and the biopterin cofactor in Parkinson's disease and related extrapyramidal diseases. Adv Neurol 1984; 40: 467-473.
67. Tsai MJ, Lee EH: Nicotine enhances brain biopterin concentrations in rats. Neurochem International 1995; 27(2): 213-217.
68. Anastasiadis PZ, Kuhn DM, Levine RA: Tetrahydrobiopterin uptake into rat brain synaptosomes, cultured PC12 cells, and rat striatum. Brain Res 1994; 665(1): 77-84.
69. Hirotsu I, Horikawa Y, Kihara T, Ishihara T, Kanai T: Reversal of alphamethyltyrosine-induced hypoactivity by 6-(R)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-L-erythrobiopterin (R-THBP) in mice. Jap J Pharmacol 1992; 58(1): 67-73.
70. Hossain MA, Masserano JM, Weiner N: Comparative effects of electro-convulsive shock and haloperidol on in vivo tyrosine hydroxylation and tetrahydrobiopterin in the brain of rats with 6-hydroxydopamine lesions. Brain Res 1992; 598(1-2): 121-126.
71. Hossain MA, Masserano JM, Weiner N: Age-related changes in tetrahydrobiopterin and GTP-cyclohydrolase activity in the brain and adrenal gland of rats. Neurobiology of Aging 1995; 16(4): 627-632.
72. Kapatos G, Hirayama K, Lentz SI, Zhu M, Stegenga S: Differential metabolism of tetrahydrobiopterin in monamine neurons: a hypothesis based upon clinical and basic research. Adv Exp Med & Biol 1993; 338: 217-222.
73. Amstrong RA, Anderson J, Cowburn JD, Cox J, Blair JA: Aluminum administered in drinking water but not in the diet influences biopterin metabolism in the rodent. Biol Chem Hoppe-Seyler 1992; 373(10): 1075-1078.
74. Aziz AA, Leeming RJ, Blair JA: Tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism in senile dementia of Alzheimer type. J Neurol, Neurosurg & Psychiatry 1983; 46(5): 410-413.
75. Sawada M, Hirata Y, Minami M, Nagatsu T: Effects of thyrotropin releasing hormone and its analogue, DN 1417, on biopterin concentration and tryptophan hydroxylation in rat raphe slices. Life Sciences 1987; 41(25): 2733-2737.
76. Sawada M, Hirata Y, Arai H, lizuka R, Nagatsu T: Tyrosine hydroxylase, tryptophan hydroxylase, biopterin, and neopterin in the brains of normal controls and patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer type. J Neurochem 1987; 48(3): 760-764.
77. Nakamura S, Koshimura K, Kato T, Yamao S, Iijima S, Nagata H, Miyata S, Fujiyoshi K, Okamoto K, Suga H et al.: Neurotransmitters in dementia. Clinical Therapeutics 1984; 7: 18-34.
78. Eggar C, Hamon CG, Morar C, Al-Salihi F, Blair JA, Barford PA: The effect of lead on tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism. A possible mechanism for neurotoxicity. Clinica Chimica Acta 1986; 161(1): 103-109.
79. Moore MR, McIntosh MJ, Bushnell IW: The neurotoxicology of lead. Neurotoxicology 1986; 7(2): 541-556.
80. Schapiro MB, Kay AD, May C, Ryker AK, Haxby JV, Kaufman S, Milstien S, Rapoport SI: Cerebrospinal fluid monoamines in Down's syndrome adults at different ages. J Mental Deficiency Research 1987; 31(Pt 3): 259-269.
81. Hirayama K, Kapatos G: Regulation of GTP cyclohydrolase I gene expression and tetrahydrobiopterin content by nerve growth factor in cultures of superior cervical ganglia. Neurochem International 1995; 27(2): 157-161.
82. Baumann P: Transport systems and enzymes involved in the metamorphosis of tryptophan into serotonin. Pharmacopsychiatry 1985; 18(2): 188-192.
83. Cooke WT: The neurological manifestations of malabsorption. Postg Med J 1978; 54(637): 760-762.
84. Kobayashi T, Hasegawa H, Kaneko E, Ichiyama A: Gastrointestinal serotonin: depletion due to terrahydrobiopterin deficiency induced by 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxypyrimidine administration. J Pharmacol & Exp Therapeutics 1991; 256(2): 773-779.
85. Hamon CG, Cutler P, Blair JA: Tetrahydrobiopterin metabolism in the streptozotocin induced diabetic state in rats. Clinica Chimica Acta 1989; 181(3): 249-253.
86. Ziegler I, Gutlich M: Tetrahydropterins interfere with the G protein pathway in Dictyostelium discoideum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1996; 221(2): 368-373.
87. Hirata Y, Sawada M, Minami M, Arai H, Iizuka R, Nagatsu T: Tyrosine hydroxylase, tryptophan hydroxylase, biopterin, and neopterin in the brain of anorexia nervosa. J Neural Transmission-General Section 1990; 80(2): 145-150.
88. Davis MD, Ribeiro P, Tipper J, Kaufman S: "7-tetrahydrobiopterin," a naturally occurring analogue of tetrahydrobiopterin, is a cofactor for and a potential inhibitor of the aromatic amino acid hydroxylases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89(21): 10109-10113.
89. Ziegler I, Hultner L: Tetrahydro-6-biopterin is associated with tetrahydro-7-biopterin in primary murine mast cells. FEBS Letters 1992; 307(2): 147-150.
90. Nassonov E, Samsonov M, Beketova T, Semenkova L, Wachter H, Fuchs D: Serum neopterin concentrations in Wegener's granulomatosis correlate with vascultis activity. Clin & Exp Rheumatol 1995; 13(3): 353-356.
91. Reibnegger G, Boonpucknavig V, Fuchs D et al.: Urinary neopterin excretion is elevated in patients with malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1984; 78: 545-546.
92. Fuchs D, Hausen A, Koffler M et al.: Neopterin as an index of immune response in patients with tuberculosis. Lung 1984; 162: 337-346.
93. Thuma PE, Weiss G, Herold M, Gordeuk VR: Serum neopterin, interleukin-4, and interleukin-6 concentrations in cerebral malaria patients and the effect of iron chelation therapy. Am J Trop Med & Hyg 1996; 54(2): 164-168.
94. Shaw CE, Dunbar PR, Macaulay HA, Neale TJ: Measurement of immune markers in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of multiple sclerosis patients during clinical remission. J Neurol 1995; 242(2): 53-58.
95. Shintaku H, Murata R, Hattori H, Matsuoka O, Nakajima T, Imamura T, Sawada Y: Neopterin in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. Adv Exp Med & Biol 1993; 338: 247-250.
96. Komori H, Matsuishi T, Yamada S, Ichikawa K, Amamoto M, Yamashita F: Elevated biopterin and homovanillic acid levels in cerebrospinal fluid from children with aseptic meningitis. J Child Neurol 1994; 9(1): 22-25.
97. Heyes MP, Saito K, Milstein S, Schiff SJ: Quinolinic acid in tumors, hemorrhage and bacterial infections of the central nervous system in children. J Neurol Sci 1995; 133(1-2): 112-118.
98. Rolfs A, Muhlschlegel F, Jansen-Rosseck R, Martins AR, Bedaque EA, Tambuus WM, Pedretti L, Schulte G, Feldmeier H, Kremsner P: Clinical and immunologic follow-up study of patients with neurocysticercosis after treatment with praziquantel. Neurology 1995; 45(3 Pt 1): 532-538.
99. Rogowska-Szadkowska D, Borzuchowska A, Prokopowicz D, Chodynicka B, Rogowski F, Kramarz P: "Prognostic markers" in serum of active and passive intravenous drug users infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Polskie Archiwum Medycyny Wewnetrznej 1995; 93(6): 469-474.
100. Sacktor N, Liu X, Popescu M, Marder K, Stem Y, Mayeux R: Serum neopterin level predicts HIV-related mortality but not progression to AIDS or development of neurological disease in gay men and parenteral drug users. Arch Neurol 1995; 52(7): 676-679.
101. Shaskan EG, Brew BJ, Rosenblum M, Thompson RM, Price RW: Increased neopterin levels in brains of patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Neurochem 1992; 59(4): 1541-1546.
102. Sonnerborg A, Saaf J, Alexius B, Strannegard O, Wahlund LO, Wetterberg L: Quantitative detection of brain aberrations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals by magnetic resonance imaging. J Inf Dis 1990; 162(6): 1245-1251.
103. Fuchs D, Moller AA, Reibnegger G et al: Decreased serum tryptophan in patients with HIV-1 infection correlates with increased serum neopterin and with neurologic/psychiatric symptoms. J AIDS 1990; 3: 873-876.
104. Lipton SA, Gendelman HE: Dementia associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New Engl J Med 1995; 332(14): 934-940.
105. Melichar B, Malir F, Jandik P, Malirova E, Vavrova J, Mergancova J, Voboril Z: Increased urinary zinc excretion in cancer patients is linked to immune activation and renal tubular cell dysfunction. Biometals 1995; 8(3): 205-208.
106. Iwagaki H, Hizuta A, Tanaka N, Orita K: Decreased serum tryptophan in patients with cancer cachexia correlates with increased serum neopterin. Immunological Investigations 1995; 24(3): 467-478.
107. Kuznits R, Ludwig H, Legenstein E, Szekeresz T, Kratzik C, Hofbauer J: Neopterin as tumor marker: serum and urinary neopterin concentrations in malignant diseases. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1986; 24: 119-124.
108. Rokos H, Rokos K, Frisius H, Kirstaedter HJ: Altered urinary excretion of pteridines in neoplastic disease. Determination of biopterin, neopterin, xanthopterin and pterin. Clin Chim Acta 1980; 105: 275-286.
109. Hausen A, Wachter H: Pteridines in the assessment of neoplasia. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1982; 20: 593-602.
110. Mura P, Piriou A, Tallineau C, Reiss D: La neopterine urinaire: interet dans l'exploration de certains neoplasies. Ann Biol Clin 1986; 44: 505-510.
111. Stea B, Halpern RM, Halpern BC, Smith RA: Urinary excretion levels of unconjugated pterins in cancer patients and normal individuals. Clin Chim Acta 1981; 113: 231-242.
112. Andondonskaja-Renz B, Zeitler H: Pteridines in plasma and in cells of peripheral blood tumor patients. In: Pfeiderer W, Wachter H, Curtius HC, eds. Biochemical and clinical aspects of pteridines. Vol 3. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1984: 295-311.
113. Heyes MP, Saito K, Major EO, Milstien S, Markey SP, Vickers JH: A mechanism of quinolinic acid formation by brain in inflammatory neurological disease. Attenuation of synthesis from L-tryptophan by 6-chlorotryptophan and 4-chloro-3-hydroxyanthranilate. Brain 1993; 116(Pt 6): 1425-1450.
114. Saito K: Biochemical studies on AIDS dementia complex-possible contribution of quinolinic acid during brain damage. Rinsho Byori-Jap J Clin Pathol 1995; 43(9): 891-901.
115. Lissoni et al.: Correlation between pretreatment serum levels of neopterin and response to interleukin-2 immunotherapy in cancer patients. J Biol Regulators & Homeostatic Agents 1995; 9(1): 21-23.
116. Eber B, Schumacher M, Tatzber F, Kaufmann P, Luha O, Esterbauer H, Gasser R, Klein W: Evaluation of neopterin as a marker for restenosis following percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Cardiovascular Drugs & Therapy 1995; 9(2): 361-362.
117. Speir E, Modali R, Huang E-S, Leon MB, Shawl F, Finkel T, Epstein SE: Potential role of human cytomegalovirus and p53 interaction in coronary restenosis. Science 1994; 265: 391-394.
118. Margreiter R, Fuchs D, Hausen A et al.: Neopterin as a new biochemical marker for diagnosis of allograft rejection. Transplantation 1983; 36: 650-653.
119. Niederwieser D, Huber C, Gratwohl A et al.: Neopterin as a new biochemical marker in the clinical monitoring of bone marrow transplant recipients. Transplantation 1984; 38: 497-500.
120. Aulitzky WE, Tieg H, Niederweiser D et al.: Comparison of serum neopterin levels and urinary neopterin excretion in renal allograft recipients. Clin Nephrol 1988; 29: 248-252.
121. Patarca R, Sandier D, Walling J, Lunn BC, Fletcher MA: Assessment of immune mediator expression levels in biological fluids and cells: A critical appraisal. Crit Rev Oncogenesis 1995; 6(2): 117-149.
122. Dewey VC, Kidder GW: Assay of unconjugated pterins. Methods Enzymol 1971; 18B: 618-629.
123. Hausen A, Fuchs D, Konig K, Wachter H: Determination of neopterin in human urine by reversed-phase HPLC. J Chromatogr 1982; 227: 61-70.
124. Nagatsu T, Sawada M, Yamaguchi T et al.: Radioimmunoassay for neopterin in body fluids and tissues. Anal Biochem 1982; 141: 472-480.
125. Rokos H, Rokos K: A radioimmunoassay for demonstration of D-erythroneopterin. In Blair JA, ed. Chemistry and biology of pteridines. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 193: 815-819.
126. Boudah A, Hayte J, Dhondt J: Electrochemical detection of the reduced form of biopterin. In Pfeiderer W, Wachter H, Curtius HC, eds. Biochemical and clinical aspects of pteridines. Vol 3. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1984: 295-311.
127. Sawada M, Yamaguchi T, Sugimoto T, Matsuura S, Nagatsu T: Polarization fluoroimmunoassay of biopterin and neopterin in human urine. Clin Chim Acta 1984; 138: 275-282.
128. Huber JFK, Lang HRM, Fuchs D et al.: Assay of neopterin in serum by means of HPLC applying on line deproteinization. In Biochemical and clinical aspects of pteridines. Pfeiderer W, Wachter H, Curtius HC, eds. Vol 3. Berlin-New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1984; 195-210.
129. Werner ER, Fuchs D, Hausen A, Reibnegger G, Wachter H: Simultaneous determination of neopterin and creatinine in serum with solid-phase extraction and on-line elution liquid chromatography. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 2028-2033-
130. Werner ER, Bichler A, Daxenbichler G et al.: Determination of neopterin in serum and urine. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 62-66.
131. Lutgendorf S, Klimas NG, Antoni M, Brickman A, Fletcher MA: Relationships of cognitive difficulties to immune measures, depression and illness burden in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1995; 1(2): 23-41.
132. Patarca R, Lugtendorf S, Antoni M, Klimas NG, Fletcher MA: Dysregulated expression of tumor necrosis factor in the chronic fatigue immune dysfunction syndrome: Interrelations with cellular sources and patterns of soluble immune mediator expression. Clin inf Dis 1994; 18: S147-S153.
133. Patarca R, Klimas NG, Garcia MN, Walters MJ, Dombroski J, Pons H, Fletcher MA: Dysregulated expression of soluble immune mediator receptors in a subset of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome: Categorization of patients by immune status. J Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1995; 1: 81-96.
134. Patarca R, Klimas NG, Sandler D, Garcia MN, Fletcher MA: Interindividual immune status variation patterns in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome: association with the tumor necrosis factor system and gender. J Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 1996; 2(1): 13-39.
135. Jacobson, W, Saich T, Borysiewicz W C, Behan WMH, Behan PO, Wreghitt TG. Serum folate and chronic fatigue syndrome. Neurology 1993; 43: 2645-2647.
136. Coppen, A, Swade A, Jones SA, Armstrong RA, Blair JA, Leeming RJ. Depression and tetrahydrobiopterin: the folate connection. J Affect Dis 1989; 16: 103-107.
137. Smith AP, Behan PO, Bell W, Millar K, Bakheit M: Behavioural problems associated with the chronic fatigue syndrome. Br J Psychol 1993; 84: 411-423.