Cardiac surgery in the young infant: An in vivo model for the study of hypoxic-ischemic brain injury?

Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 49-58

  Du Plessis, Adré J ^a  

^a BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

brain injury; cardiac surgery; cardiopulmonary bypass; congenital heart disease; hypoxia ischemia; neuroprotection

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN HYPOXIA; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; BRAIN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; HEART ARREST; HEART SURGERY; HUMAN; HYPOTHERMIA; NEUROPROTECTION; PEROPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE;

EID: 0030992468     PISSN: 10804013     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2779(1997)3:1<49::AID-MRDD7>3.0.CO;2-S     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Aoki M, Nomura F, Stromski M et al. (1993): Effects of pH on brain energetics after hypothermic circulatory arrest. Ann Thorac Surg 55:1093-1103.
2. Aoki M, Nomura F, Stromski M et al. (1994): Effects of MK-801 and NBQX on acute recovery of cerebral metabolism after hypothermic circulatory arrest. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14:156-165.
3. Aoki M, Jonas R, Nomura F et al. (1995): Anti-CD18 attenuates deleterious effects of cardiopulmonary bypass and hypothermic circulatory arrest in piglets. J Cardiac Surg 10:407-417.
4. Bellinger D, Wernovsky G, Rappaport L et al. (1991): Cognitive development of children following early repair of transposition of the great arteries using deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. Pediatrics 87:701-707.
5. Bellinger D, Jonas R, Rappaport L et al. (1995): Developmental and neurologic status of children after heart surgery with hypothermic circulatory arrest or low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass. N Engl J Med 332:549-555.
6. Benson D (1989): Changing profile of congenital heart disease. Pediatrics 83:790-791.
7. Berthrong M, Sabiston D (1951): Cerebral lesions in congenital heart disease. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 89.384-401.
8. Bjork V, Hultquist G (1962): Contraindications to profound hypothermia in open-heart surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 44:1-13.
9. Blackwood M, Haka-Ikse K, Steward D (1986): Developmental outcome in children undergoing surgery with profound hypothermia. Anesthesiology 65:437-440.
10. Boyajian R, Sobel D, DeLaria G et al. (1993): Embolic stroke as a sequela of cardiopulmonary bypass. J Neuroimaging 3:1-5.
11. Brunberg J, Doty D, Reilly E (1974a): Choreoathetosis in infants following cardiac surgery with deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest. J Pediatr 84:232-235.
12. Brunberg J, Reilly E, Doty D (1974b): Central nervous system consequences in infants of cardiac surgery using deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest. Circulation 50:II-60-II-68.
13. Buchan A (1992): Advances in cerebral ischemia: Experimental approaches Neurol Clin 10: 49-61.
14. Buchan A, Pulsinelh W (1990): Hypothermia but not the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist, MK801, attenuates neuronal damage in gerbils subjected to transient global ischemia. J Neurosci 10:311-316.
15. Buchan A, Lesiuk H, Barnes K et al. (1993): AMPA antagonists: Do they hold more promise for clinical stroke trials than NMDA antagonists? Stroke 24:148-152.
16. Buchan A, Gertler S, Li H et al. (1994): A selective N-type Ca2+ channel blocker prevents CA1 injury 24 h following severe forebrain ischemia and reduces infarction following focal ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14:903-910.
17. Busto R, Dietrich W, Globus M-T et al. (1987): Small differences in intraischemic brain temperature critically determine the extent of ischemic neuronal injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 7:729-738.
18. Busto R, Dietrich W, Globus M et al. (1989a): Post-ischemic moderate hypothermia inhibits CA1 hippocampal ischemic neuronal injury. Neurosci Lett 101:299-304.
19. Busto R, Globus M, Dietrich W et al. (1989b): Effect of mild hypothermia on ischemia-induced release of neurotransmitters and free fatty acids in rat brain Stroke 20:904-910.
20. Caro J, Groome P, Flegel K (1993): Atrial fibrillation and anticoagulation: From randomized trials to practice. Lancet 341:1381-1384.
21. Casey L (1993): Role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of cardiopulmonary-induced multisystem organ failure. Ann Thorac Surg 56:S92-S96.
22. Castaneda A, Mayer J, Jonas R et al. (1989): The neonate with critical congenital heart disease: Repair - a surgical challenge. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 98:869-875.
23. Chaves E, Scaltsas-Persson I (1988): Severe choreoathetosis (CA) following congenital heart disease (CHD) surgery [abstract]. Neurology 38:284.
24. Choi D (1987): Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 7:369-379.
25. Clarkson P, MacArthur B, Barrat-Boyes B et al. (1980): Developmental progress after cardiac surgery in infancy using hypothermia and circulatory arrest. Circulation 62:855-861.
26. Coetzee A, Swanepoel C (1990): The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve before, during and after cardiac surgery. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 203:149-153.
27. Curless R, Katz D, Perryman R et al. (1994): Choreoathetosis after surgery for congenital heart disease. J Pediatr 124:737-739.
28. Dawson T, Dawson V, Snyder S (1992): A novel neuronal messenger molecule in brain: The free radical, nitric oxide. Ann Neurol 32:297-311.
29. del Zoppo G (1994): Microvascular changes during cerebral ischemia and reperfusion. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 6:47-96.
30. Dexter F, Hindman B (1995): Theoretical analysis of cerebral venous blood hemoglobin oxygen saturation as an index of cerebral oxygenation during hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass. Anesthesiology 83:405-412
31. Dickinson D, Sambrooks J (1979): Intellectual performance in children after circulatory arrest with profound hypothermia in infancy. Arch Dis Child 54:1-6.
32. Dietrich D, Busto R, Halley M et al. (1990): The importance of brain temperature in alterations of the blood-brain barrier following cerebral ischemia J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 49:486-497.
33. Dietrich W, Busto R, Alonso O et al. (1993): Intraischemic but not postischemic brain hypothermia protects chronically following global forebrain ischemia in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 13:541-549
34. du Plessis A (1995): Pediatric cardiovascular intensive care. Neurologic problems. Prog Pediatr Cardiol 4:135-141.
35. du Plessis A, Kramer U, Jonas R et al. (1994a): West syndrome following deep hypothermic cardiac surgery. Pediatr Neurol 11:246-251.
36. du Plessis A, Treves S, Hickey P et al. (1994b): Regional cerebral perfusion abnormalities after cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 107:1036-1043.
37. du Plessis A, Chang A, Wessel D et al. (1995a): Cerebrovascular accidents following the Fontan procedure. Pediatr Neurol 12:230-236
38. du Plessis A, Newburger J, Jonas R et al. (1995b): Cerebral oxygen supply and utilization during infant cardiac surgery. Ann Neurol 37:488-497.
39. Edwards A, Yue X, Squier M et al. (1995): Specific inhibition of apoptosis after cerebral hypoxia-ischaemia by moderate post-insult hypothermia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 217: 1193-1199.
40. Ehyai A, Fenichel G, Bender H (1984): Incidence and prognosis of seizures in infants after cardiac surgery with profound hypothermia and circulatory arrest. JAMA 252:3165-3167.
41. Elliott M (1993): Ultrafiltration and modified ultrafiltration in pediatric open heart operations. Ann Thorac Surg 56:1518-1522.
42. Elliott M, Finn A (1993): Interaction between neutrophils and endothelium. Ann Thorac Surg 56:1503-1508.
43. Ferry P (1987): Neurologic sequelae of cardiac surgery in children. AJDC 141:309-312.
44. Ferry P (1990): Neurologic sequelae of open-heart surgery in children: An irritating question. AJDC 144:369-373.
45. Feuerstein G, Liu T, Barone F (1994): Cytokines, inflammation, and brain injury: Role of tumor necrosis factor-α. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 6:341-360.
46. Fisher M (1995): Potentially effective therapies for acute ischemic stroke. Eur Neurol 35:3-7.
47. Fisher M, Jonas S, Sacco R (1994): Prophylactic neuroprotection for cerebral ischemia. Stroke 25:1075-1080.
48. Forsman M, Tubylewicz Olsnes B, Semb G et al. (1990): Effects of nimodipine on cerebral blood flow and neuropsychological outcome after cardiac surgery. Br J Anaesth 65:514-520.
49. Fukuda H, Sawa Y, Kadoba K et al. (1995): Supplement of nitric oxide attenuates neutrophil-mediated reperfusion injury. Circulation 92:413-416.
50. Gelmers H, Gorter K, De Weerdt C et al. (1988): A controlled trial of nimodipine in acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 318:23-207.
51. Ginsberg M (1993): Emerging strategies for the treatment of ischemic brain injury. In Waxman S (ed): Molecular and Cellular Approaches to the Treatment of Neurological Disease. New York: Raven Press, pp 207-237.
52. Ginsberg M, Pulsinelli W (1994): The ischemic penumbra, injury thresholds, and the therapeutic window for acute stroke. Ann Neurol 36:553-554.
53. Ginsberg M, Sternau L, Globus M-T et al. (1992): Therapeutic modulation of brain temperature: Relevance to ischemic brain injury. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev 4:189-225.
54. Glauser T, Rorke L, Weinberg P et al. (1990): Acquired neuropathologic lesions associated with the hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Pediatrics 85:991-1000.
55. Globus MY-T, Busto R, Dietrich W et al. (1988): Intra-ischemic extracellular release of dopamine and glutamate is associated with striatal vulnerability to ischemia. Ncurosci Lett 91: 36-40.
56. Globus M, Alonso O, Dietrich WD et al. (1995a): Glutamate release and free radical production following brain injury: Effects of posttraumatic hypothermia. J Neurochem 65:1704-1711
57. Globus M, Prado R, Sanchezramos J et al. (1995b): A dual role for nitric oxide in NMDA-mediated toxicity in vivo. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:904-913.
58. Greeley W, Ungerleider R, Kern F et al. (1989a): Effects of cardiopulmonary bypass on cerebral blood flow in neonates, infants, and children. Circulation 1980:209-215
59. Greeley W, Ungerleider R, Smith L et al. (1989b): The effects of deep hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass and total circulatory arrest on cerebral blood flow in infants and children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 97:737-745.
60. Greeley W, Bracey V, Ungerleider R et al. (1991): Recovery of cerebral metabolism and mitochondral oxidation state is delayed after hypothermic circulatory arrest Circulation 84:III-400-III-406.
61. Greenamyre T, Penney J, Young A et al. (1987): Evidence for transient perinatal glutamatergic innervation of globus pallidus. J Neurosci 7:1022-1030.
62. Grieco G, d'Hollosy M, Culliford A et al. (1996): Evaluating neuroprotective agents for clinical anti-ischemic benefit using neurological and neuropsychological changes after cardiac surgery under cardiopulmonary bypass: Methodological strategies and results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of GM1 ganglioside. Stroke 27:858-874.
63. Grotta J (1994): The current status of neuronal protective therapy: Why have all the neuronal protective drugs worked in animals but none so far in stroke patients? Cerebrovasc Dis 4:115-120.
64. Hall T (1995): The pathphysiology of cardiopulmonary bypass: The risks and benefits of hemodilution. Chest 107:1125-1133.
65. Hamada J, Greenberg J, Croul S et al. (1995): Effects of central inhibition of nitric oxide synthase on focal cerebral ischemia in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15:779-786.
66. Hiramatsu T, Miura T, Forbess J et al. (1994): L-NAME blocks recovery of cerebral energy state after deep hypothermic circulatory arrest in piglets. In Krieglstein J, Oberpichler-Swenck H (eds): Pharmacology of Cerebral Ischemia. Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH.
67. Huntley D, Al-Mateen M, Mentes J (1993): Unusual dyskinesia complicating cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Dev Med Child Neurol 35:631-641.
68. Hutto R, Williams J, Maertens P et al. (1991): Cerebellar infarct: Late complication of the Fontan procedure. Pediatr Neurol 7:293-295.
69. Jansen N, van Oeveren W, Gu Y et al. (1992): Endotoxin release and tumor necrosis factor formation during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 54:744-748.
70. Johnston M (1995). New strategies for brain protection including NMDA receptor antagonists. In Jonas R, Newburger J, Volpe J (eds): Brain Injury and Pediatric Cardiac Surgery. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 365-373.
71. Johnston M, Redmond J, Gillinov A et al. (1995): Neuroprotective strategies in a model of selective neuronal necrosis from hypothermic circulatory arrest. In Moskowitz M, Caplan L (eds): Cerebrovascular Diseases. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, pp 165-174.
72. Jonassen A, Quaegebeur J, Young W (1995): Cerebral blood flow velocity in pediatric patients is reduced after cardiopulmonary bypass with profound hypothermia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 110:934-943.
73. Jorens P, De Jongh R, De Backer W et al. (1993): Interleukin-8 production in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass: The influence of pretreatment with methylprednisolone. Am Rev Respir Dis 148:890-895.
74. Journois D, Pouard P, Greeley W et al. (1994): Hemofiltration during cardiopulmonary bypass in pediatric cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 81:1181-1189.
75. Kirklin J, Westaby S, Blackstone E et al (1983): Complement and the damaging effects of cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 86:845-857.
76. Koster J, Van de Vanter S, Bean J et al. (1976): Effect of hemodilution and profound hypothermic circulatory arrest on blood flow and oxygen consumption of the brain. Surg Forum 27:235-237.
77. Kupsky W, Drozd M, Barlow C (1995): Selective injury of the globus pallidus in children with post-cardiac surgery choreic syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 37:135-144.
78. Kurth C, Steven J, Nicolson S et al. (1989): Changes in brain oxygenation during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and hypothermic circulatory arrest (CA) in neonates. Anesthesiology 71:A1035.
79. Kurth C, Steven J, Nicolson S (1995): Cerebral oxygenation during pediatric cardiac surgery using deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. Anesthesiology 82:74-82.
80. Ledeist F, Menasche P, Kucharski C et al. (1995): Hypothermia during cardiopulmonary bypass delays but does not prevent neutrophil-endothelial cell adhesion: A clinical study. Circulation 92:II-354-II-358.
81. Levene M, Gibson N, Fenton A et al. (1990): The use of a calcium-channel blocker, nicardipine, for severely asphyxiated newborn infants. Dev Med Child Neurol 32:567-574.
82. Leviton A, Gilles F (1974): Astrocytosis without globules in infant cerebral white matter: An epidemiologic study. J Neurol Sci 22:329-340.
83. Lipton S, Choi Y-B, Pan Z-H et al. (1993): A redox-based mechanism for the neuroprotective and neurodestructive effects of nitric oxide and related nitroso-compounds. Nature 364:626-632.
84. Lucchesi B (1993). Complement activation, neutrophils, and oxygen radicals in reperfusion injury. Stroke 24:141-147.
85. Mathews K, Bale J, Clark E et al. (1986): Cerebral infarction complicating Fontan surgery for cyanotic congenital heart disease. Pediatr Cardiol 7:161-166.
86. McDonald J, Johnston M (1990). Physiological and pathophysiological roles of excitatory amino acids during central nervous system development: Brain Res Rev 15:41-70.
87. Messmer B, Schallberger U, Gattiker R et al. (1976). Psychomotor and intellectual development after deep hypothermia and circulatory arrest in early infancy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 72.495-502.
88. Mezrow C, Midulla P, Sadeghi A et al (1994): Evaluation of cerebral metabolism and quantitative electroencephalography after hypothermic circulatory arrest and low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass at different temperatures. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 107:1006-1019.
89. Michenfelder J, Theye R (1968): Hypothermia: Effect on canine brain and whole body metabolism. Anesthesiology 29:1107-1111.
90. Millar A, Armstrong L, van der Linden J et al. (1993). Cytokine production and hemodilution in children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. 1993 56:1499-1502.
91. Miller G, Eggli K, Contant C et al. (1995): Postoperative neurologic complications after open heart surgery on young infants. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 149:764-768.
92. Moncada S, Higgs A (1993): The L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. N Engl J Med 329:2002-2012.
93. Moody D, Bell M, Challa V et al. (1990): Brain microemboli during cardiac surgery or aortography. Ann Neurol 28:477-486.
94. Mujsce D, Towfighi J, Vannucci R (1990). Physiologic and neuropathologic aspects of hypothermic circulatory arrest in newborn dogs. Pediatr Res 28:354-360.
95. Mujsce D, Towfighi J, Yager J et al. (1993): Neuropathologic aspects of hypothermic circulatory arrest in newborn dogs. Acta Neuropathol 85:190-198.
96. 2. Anesth Analg 66:825-832.
97. Murphy J (1990): UK-calcium antagonist trial (TRUST). J Neurol 237:130.
98. Nakajima T, Kuro M, Hayashi Y et al. (1992): Clinical evaluation of cerebral oxygen balance during cardiopulmonary bypass: On-line continuous monitoring of jugular venous oxyhemoglobin saturation. Anesth Analg 74:630-635.
99. Nathan H, Lavallee G (1995): The management of temperature during hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass: 1. Canadian survey. Can J Anaesth 42:669-671.
100. Newburger J, Silbert A, Buckley L et al. (1984): Cognitive function and age at repair of transposition of the great arteries in children. N Engl J Med 310:1495-1499.
101. Newburger J, Jonas R, Wernovsky G et al. (1993): A comparison of the perioperative neurologic effects of hypothermic circulatory arrest versus low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass in infant heart surgery. N Engl J Med 329:1057-1064.
102. Northington FJ, Tobin JR, Koehler RC et al. (1995): In vivo production of nitric oxide correlates with NMDA-induced cerebral hyperemia in newborn sheep. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Phy 38:H215-H221.
103. Ohare B, Bissonnette B, Bohn D et al. (1995): Persistent low cerebral blood flow velocity following profound hypothermic circulatory arrest in infants. Can J Anaesth 42:964-971.
104. Olney J (1994): Neurotoxicity of NMDA receptor antagonists: An overview. Psychopharmacol Bull 30:533-540.
105. Palluy O, Morliere L, Gris J et al. (1992): Hypoxia/reoxygenation stimulates endothelium to promote neutrophil adhesion. Free Radic Biol Med 13:21-30
106. Penrice J, Thoresen M, Lorek A et al. (1994): Mild hypothermia following severe hypoxia-ischemia ameliorates delayed cerebral energy failure in the newborn piglet. Early Hum Dev 39:146A.
107. Pesonen EJ, Korpela R, Peltola K et al. (1995): Regional generation of free oxygen radicals during cardiopulmonary bypass in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 110.768-773.
108. Redmond J, Gillinov A, Blue M et al. (1993): The monosialoganghoside, GM1, reduces neurologic injury associated with hypothermic circulatory arrest. Surgery 114:324-33.
109. Redmond J, Gillinov A, Zehr K et al (1994): Glutamate excitotoxicity: A mechanism of neurologic injury associated with hypothermic circulatory arrest. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 107.776-786.
110. Redmond J, Zehr K, Blue M et al. (1995). AMPA glutamate receptor antagonism reduces neurologic injury after hypothermic circulatory arrest. Ann Thorac Surg 59:579-584.
111. Reeves R (1980): The effect of temperature on the oxygen equilibrium curve of human blood. Respir Physiol 42:317-328.
112. Robinson R, Samuels M, Pohl K (1988): Choreic syndrome after cardiac surgery. Arch Dis Child 63:1466-1469.
113. Rokkas CK, Cronin CS, Nitta T et al. (1995): Profound systemic hypothermia inhibits the release of neurotransmitter amino acids in spinal cord ischemia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 110:27-35.
114. Rosenberg P (1995): Excitotoxicity and other mechanisms of glutamate mediated injury. Talk presented to NNBDG group.
115. Rosenthal D, Friedman A, Kleinman C et al, (1995): Thromboembolic complications after Fontan operations. Circulation 92 (Suppl II):287-293.
116. Rothman S, Olney J (1986): Glutamate and the pathophysiology of hypoxic-ischemic damage. Ann Neurol 19:105-111.
117. Ruvolo G, Greco E, Speziale G et al. (1994): Nitric oxide formation during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 57:1055-1057.
118. Seghaye M, Duchateau J, Grabitz R et al. (1993): Complement activation during cardiopulmonary bypass in infants and children: Relation to postoperative multiple system organ failure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 106:978-987.
119. Siesjo B, Bengtsson F (1989): Calcium fluxes, calcium antagonists, and calcium-related pathology in brain ischemia, hypoglycemia, and spreading depression: A unifying hypothesis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 9:127-140.
120. Skaryak LA, Kirshbom PM, Dibernardo LR et al. (1995): Modified ultrafiltration improves cerebral metabolic recovery after circulatory arrest. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 109:744-752.
121. Skov L, Greisen G (1994): Apparent cerebral cytochrome aa3 reduction during cardiopulmonary bypass in hypoxemic children with congenital heart disease: A critical analysis of in vivo near-infrared spectrophotometric data. Physiol Meas 15:447-457.
122. Soriano S, Lipton S, Wang Y et al. (1996): Intercellular adhesion molecule-1-deficient mice are less susceptible to cerebral iscemia-reperfusion injury. Ann Neurol 39:618-624.
123. Speziali G, Russo P, Davis D et al. (1994): Hypothermia enhances contractility in cerebral arteries of newborn lambs. J Surg Res 57.80-84.
124. Steinberg J, Kapelanski D, Olson J et al (1993): Cytokine and complement levels in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 106.1008-1016.
125. Stevenson J, Stone E, Dillard D et al. (1974): Intellectual developmental of children subjected to prolonged circulatory arrest during open heart surgery in infancy. Circulation 49:54-59.
126. Stocker F, Herschkowitz N, Bossi E et al. (1986): Cerebral metabolic studies in situ by 31-P nuclear magnetic resonance after hypothermic circulatory arrest. Pediatr Res 20:867-871.
127. Straussberg R, Shahar E, Gat R et al (1993): Delayed Pirkinsonism associated with hypotension in a child undergoing open-heart surgery. Dev Med Child Neurol 35:1007-1014.
128. Swain J, McDonald T, Balaban R et al. (1991): Metabolism of the heart and brain during hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 51:105-109.
129. Terplan K (1973): Patterns of brain damage in infants and children with congenital heart disease: Association with catheterization and surgical procedures. Am J Dis Child 125:175-185.
130. Terplan K (1976): Brain changes in newborns, infants and children with congenital heart disease in association with cardiac surgery: Additional observations. J Neurosurg 212: 225.
131. Thoresen M, Penrice J, Lorek A et al. (1995): Mild hypothermia after severe transient hypoxia-ischemia ameliorates delayed cerebral energy failure in the newborn piglet. Pediatr Res 37:667-670.
132. Toivonen H, Ahotupa M (1994). Free radical reaction products and antioxidant capacity in arterial plasma during coronary artery bypass grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 108:140-147.
133. Treasure T, Naftel D, Conger K et al. (1983): The effect of hypothermic arrest time on cerebral function, morphology, and biochemistry: An experimental study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 86:761-770.
134. Valentino K, Newcomb R, Gadbois T et al. (1993): A selective N-type calcium channel antagonist protects against neuronal cell loss after global cerebral ischemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:7894-7897.
135. Vannucci R (1990). Experimental biology of cerebral hypoxia-ischemia: Relation to perinatal brain damage. Pediatr Res 27:317-326.
136. Volpe J (1994): Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy: Neuropathology and pathogenesis. In Neurology of the Newborn, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, pp 279-313.
137. Waxman S (1993): Molecular and cellular organization of the central nervous system: Implications for new therapies. In Waxman S (ed): Molecular and Cellular Approaches to the Treatment of Neurological Disease. New York: Raven Press, pp 1-21.
138. Wells F, Coghill S, Caplan H et al. (1983): Duration of circulatory arrest does influence the psychological development of children after cardiac operation in early life. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 86:823-831.
139. Wessel D, du Plessis A (1995): Choreoathetosis. In Jonas R, Newburger J, Volpe J (eds): Brain Injury and Pediatric Cardiac Surgery. Boston: Butterworth-Heineman. pp 353-362.
140. Westaby S (1987): Organ dysfunction after cardiopulmonary bypass: A systemic inflammatory reaction by the extracorporeal circuit. Intensive Care Med 13:89-95.
141. Wong P, Barlow C, Hickey P et al. (1992): Factors associated with choreoathetosis after cardiopulmonary bypass in children with congenital heart disease. Circulation 86:II-118-II-126.
142. Woods M, Greaves M, Smith G et al. (1993): The fate of circulating megakaryocytes during cardiopulmonary bypass J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 106:658-663.
143. Wright J, Hicks R, Newman D (1979): Deep hypothermic arrest: Observations on later development in children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 77:466-468.
144. Wyatt J (1993): Near-infrared spectroscopy in asphyxial birth injury. Clin Perinatol 20:369-377.
145. Xue D, Huang Z, Barnes K et al. (1994): Delayed treatment with AMPA, but not NMDAm, antagonists reduces neocortical infarction. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 14:251-261.
146. Yoshida T, Waeber C, Huang Z et al. (1995): Induction of nitric oxide synthase activity in rodent brain following middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neurosci Lett 194:214-218.