The origin and nature of beading: A reversible transformation of the shape of nerve fibers

Progress in Neurobiology

Volumn 52, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 391-426

  Ochs, Sidney ^a   Pourmand, Rahman ^a   Jersild Jr , Ralph A ^a   Friedman, Richard N ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

3,3' IMINODIPROPIONITRILE; COLLAGEN; MYELIN;

CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE; CYTOSKELETON; FREEZE FRACTURE; HUMAN; MYELIN SHEATH; NERVE FIBER; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SURFACE TENSION; TISSUE FIXATION;

ANIMALS; AXONS; CYTOSKELETON; HUMANS; MODELS, NEUROLOGICAL; MYELIN SHEATH; NERVE FIBERS; ORGANELLES; PHYSICAL STIMULATION;

EID: 0030983861     PISSN: 03010082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0301-0082(97)00022-1     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. Antal, M. and Szekely, G. (1987) Phagocytosis of myelin sheath fragments by dendrites. Expl Brain Res. 66, 517-521.
2. Baker, J. R. (1958) Principles of Biological Microtechnique, Vol. 1, 357 pp. Wiley: New York.
3. Bennett, V. and Gilligan, D. M. (1993) The spectrin-based membrane skeleton and micron-scale organization of the plasma membrane. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 9, 27-66.
4. Berthold, C.-H. (1978) Morphology of normal peripheral axons. In: Physiology and Pathology of Axons, pp. 3-63. Ed. S. G. Waxman. Raven Press: New York.
5. Berthold, C.-H. and Rydmark, M. (1995) Morphology of normal peripheral axons. In: The Axon Structure, Function and Pathophysiology. Eds S. G. Waxman, J. D. Kocsis and P. K. Stys. Oxford University Press: New York.
6. Berthold, C.-H. and Skoglund, S. (1968) Postnatal development of feline paranodal myelin-sheath segments I. Light microscopy. Acta Soc. Med. Uppsal. 73, 113-126.
7. Brown, A. and Lasek, R. J. (1993) Neurofilaments move apart freely when released from the circumferential constraint of the axonal plasma membrane. Cell Mot. Cytoskel. 26, 313-324.
8. Burton, P. R. and Fernandez, H. L. (1973) Delineation by lanthanum staining of filamentous elements associated with the surfaces of axonal microtubules. J. Cell Sci. 12, 567-583.
9. Carlin, R. K., Bartelt, D. C. and Siekevitz, P. (1983) Identification of fodrin as a major calmodulin-binding protein in postsynaptic density preparations. J. Cell Biol. 96, 443-448.
10. Chan, S. Y., Ochs, S. and Worth, R. M. (1980) The requirement for calcium ions and the effect of other ions on axoplasmic transport in mammalian nerve. J. Physiol. (London) 301, 477-504.
11. Cheney, R., Hirokawa, N., Levine, J. and Willard, M. (1983) Intracellular movement of fodrin. Cell Mot. Cytoskel. 3, 649-655.
12. Chui, S.-W., Clark, M., Balaji, V., Subramaniam, S., Scott, H. L. and Jakobsson, E. (1995) Incorporation of surface tension into molecular dynamics simulation of an interface: a fluid phase lipid bilayer membrane. Biophys. J. 69, 1230-1245.
13. Clark, A. W., Griffin, J. W. and Price, D. L. (1980) The axonal pathology in chronic IDPN intoxication. J. Neuropath. Expl Neurol. 39, 42-55.
14. Clarke, E. S. and Bearn, J. B. (1972) The spiral nerve bands of Fontana. Brain 95, 1-20.
15. Cruz-Höfling, M. A., Love, S., Brook, G. and Duchen, L. W. (1985) Effects of Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom on mouse peripheral nerve. Quart. J. Expl Physiol. 70, 623-640.
16. Dahlström, A. B. and Fuxe, K. (1964) A method for the demonstration of adrenergic nerve fibres in peripheral nerves. Z. Zellforsch. Mikr. Anat. 62, 602-607.
17. de Gennes, P. G. (1974) The Physics of Liquid Crystals, pp. 1-333. Clarendon Press: Oxford.
18. Dustin, P. (1984) Microtubules, pp. 1-482. Springer-Verlag: New York.
19. Dyck, P. J., Gianni, C. and Lais, A. (1993) Pathologic alterations of nerves. In: Peripheral Neuropathy, Vol. 1, pp. 514-595. Eds P. J. Dyck, P. K. Thomas, J. W. Griffin, P. A. Low and J. F. Poduslo. Saunders: Philadelphia.
20. Dyck, P. J. and Lofgren, E. P. (1968) Nerve biopsy. Choice of nerve, method, symptoms and usefulness. Med. Clin. North Am. 52, 885-893.
21. Edmonds, B. T. and Koenig, E. (1987) Powering of bulk transport (varicosities) and differential sensitivities of directional transport in growing axons. Brain Res. 406, 288-293.
22. Ehrenberg, C. G. (1838) Observations on the structure hitherto unknown of the nervous system in man and animals. Translated by D. Craigie, with additions and notes from an address read to the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, 24 October 1833. In: Essays on Physiology and Hygiene, pp. 67-112. Ed. Anonymous. Haswell, Barrington and Haswell: Philadelphia.
23. Elfvin, L.-G. (1963) The ultrastructure of the plasma membrane and myelin sheath of peripheral nerve fibers after fixation by freeze-drying. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 8, 283-304.
24. Elgsaeter, A., Stokke, B. T., Mikkelsen, A. and Branton, D. (1986) The molecular basis of erythrocyte shape. Science 234, 1217-1223.
25. Fernández-Morán, H. and Finean, J. B. (1957) Electron microscope and low-angle X-ray diffraction studies of the myelin sheath. J. Biophys. Biochem. Cytol. 3, 725-771.
26. Finean, J. B. and Mitchell, R. H. (1981) Isolation, composition and general structure of membranes. In: Membrane Structure. Eds J. B. Finean and R. H. Mitchell. Elsevier: New York.
27. + into transected, unsealed squid giant axons. Biol. Bull. 189, 208-209.
28. Fontana, F. (1787) Treatise on the Venom of the Viper; on American Poisons; and on the Cherry Laurel and Some Other Vegetable Poisons to Which are Annexed Observations on the Primitive Structure of the Animal Body; Different Experiments on the Reproduction of the Nerves and a Description of the Nerves; and a new Description of a new Canal of the Eye, Vol. 2, pp. 1-409. Translated from the French by J. Skinner. Murray: London.
29. Friede, R. L. (1972) Control of myelin formation by axon caliber (with a model of the control mechanism). J. Comp. Neurol. 144, 233-252.
30. Friede, R. L. and Samorajski, T. (1968) Myelin formation in the sciatic nerve of the rat. J. Neuropathol. Expl Neurol. 27, 546-569.
31. Friede, R. L. and Samorajski, T. (1970) Axon caliber related to neurofilaments and microtubules in sciatic nerve fibers of rats and mice. Anat. Rec. 167, 379-387.
32. Friede, R. L. and Bischausen, R. (1978) The organization of endo-neural collagen in peripheral nerves as revealed with the scanning electron microscope. Neurol. Sci. 36, 83-88.
33. Friede, R. L. and Bischausen, R. (1982) How are sheath dimensions affected by axon caliber and internode length? Brain Res. 235, 335-350.
34. Gallant, P. E. (1988) Effects of the external ions and metabolic poisoning on the constriction of the squid giant axon after axotomy. J. Neurosci. 8, 1479-1484.
35. Gallant, P. E., Hammar, K. and Reese, T. S. (1996) Cytoplasmic constriction and vesiculation after axotomy in the squid giant axon. J. Neurocytol. 24, 943-954.
36. Ghabriel, M. N. and Allt, G. (1981) Incisures of Schmidt-Lanterman. Progr. Neurobiol. 17, 25-58.
37. Ghadially, F. N. (1982) Ultrastructural Pathology of the Cell and Matrix, pp. 908-915. Butterworths: London.
38. Griffin, J. W., Fahnestock, K. E., Price, D. L. and Cork, L. C. (1983a) Cytoskeletal disorganization induced by local application of β,β′-iminopropionitrile and 2,5-hexanedione. Ann. Neurol. 14, 55-61.
39. Griffin, J. W., Fahnestock, K. E., Price, D. L. and Hoffman, P. N. (1983b) Microtubule-neurofilament segregation produced by β,β′-iminodipropionitrile: evidence for the association of fast axonal transport with microtubules. J. Neurosci. 3, 557-566.
40. Gutner, I. I. (1936) Über die Entwicklung der peripheren markhaltigen Nervenfasern. Z. Zellforsch. Mikr. Anat. 25, 259-282.
41. Haak, R. A., Kleinhans, F. W. and Ochs, S. (1976) The viscosity of mammalian nerve axoplasm measured by electron spin resonance. J. Physiol. (London) 263, 5-37.
42. Hall, S. M. (1972) The effects of injection of potassium cyanide into the sciatic nerve of the adult mouse: in vivo and electron microscopic studies.. J. Neurocytol. 1, 233-254.
43. Hall, S. M. and Williams, P. L. (1970) Studies on the "incisures" of Schmidt and Lanterman. J. Cell Sci. 6, 767-791.
44. Heidemann, S. R. (1996) Cytoplasmic mechanisms of axonal and dendritic growth in neurons. Intl Rev. Cytol. 165, 235-296.
45. Hirokawa, N. (1982) Cross-linker system between neurofilaments, microtubules, and membranous organelles in frog axons revealed by the quick-freeze, deep-etching method. J. Cell Biol. 94, 129-142.
46. Hirokawa, N. (1991) Molecular architecture and dynamics of the neuronal cytoskeleton. In: The Neuronal Cytoskeleton, pp. 5-74. Ed. R. D. Burgoyne. Wiley-Liss: New York.
47. Hoff, H. E. (1959) A classic of microscopy: an early, if not the first, observation on the fluidity of the axoplasm, micromanipulation, and the use of the cover-slip. Bull. Hist. Med. 33, 375-379.
48. Hoffman, P. N., Cleveland, D W., Griffin, J. W., Landes, P. W., Cowan, N. J. and Price, D. L. (1987) Neurofilament gene expression: a major determinant of axonal caliber. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84, 3472-3476.
49. Hoffman, P. N. and Griffin, J. W. (1993) The control of axonal caliber. In: Peripheral Neuropathy, Vol. 1, pp. 389-402. Eds P. J. Dyck, P. K. Thomas, J. W. Griffin, P. A. Low and J. F. Poduslo. Saunders: Philadelphia.
50. Hoffman, P. N., Koo, E. H., Muma, N. A., Griffin, J. W. and Price, D. L. (1988) Role of neurofilaments in the control of axonal caliber in myelinated nerve fibers. In: Intrinsic Determinants of Neuronal Form and Function, pp. 389-402. Eds R. J. Lasek and M. M. Black. Alan R. Liss: New York.
51. Ingber, D., Karp, S., Plopper, G., Hansen, L. and Mooney, D. (1993) Mechanochemical transduction across extracellular matrix and through the cytoskeleton. In: Physical Forces and the Mammalian Cell, pp. 61-79. Ed. J. A. Frangros. Academic Press: New York.
52. Jähnig, F. (1996) What is the surface tension of a lipid bilayer membrane? Biophys. J. 71, 1348-1349.
53. Junqueira, L. C. U., Montes, G. S. and Krisztan, R. M. (1979) The collagen of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system. Cell Tiss. Res. 202, 453-460.
54. Kakiuchi, S. and Sobue, K. (1983) Control of the cytoskeleton by calmodulin and calmodulin-binding proteins. TIBS 8, 59-62.
55. Kapeller, K. and Mayor, D. (1969) An electron microscopic study of the early changes distal to a constriction in sympathetic nerves. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 172, 53-63.
56. Karlsson, U. (1966) Comparison of the myelin period of peripheral and central origin by electron microscopy. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 15, 451-468.
57. Kates, M. and Manson, L. A. (1984) Membrane Fluidity. Plenum: New York.
58. Keil, T. A. (1993) Dynamics of "immotile" olfactory cilia in the silkworm Antheraea. Tissue Cell 25, 573-587.
59. Key, E. A. H. and Retzius, G. (1876) Studien in der Anatomie des Nervensystems und des Bindegewebes. Samson and Wallin: Stockholm.
60. Kirschner, D. A., Ganser, A. L. and Caspar, D. L. D. (1984) Diffraction studies of molecular organization and membrane interactions in myelin. In: Myelin, pp. 51-95. Ed. P. Morell. Plenum Press: New York.
61. Kirschner, D. A. and Hollingshead, C. J. (1980) Processing for electron microscopy alters membrane structure and packing in myelin. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 73, 211-232.
62. Koenig, E., Kinsman, S., Repasky, E. and Sultz, L. (1985) Rapid mobility of motile varicosities and inclusions containing α-spectrin, actin, and calmodulin in regenerating axons in vitro. J. Neurosci. 5, 715-729.
63. Koenig, E. and Repasky, E. (1985) A regional analysis of α-spectrin in the isolated Mauthner neuron and in isolated axons of the goldfish and rabbit. J. Neurosci. 5, 705-714.
64. Krause, T. L., Fishman, H. M., Ballinger, M. L. and Bittner, G. D. (1994) Extent and mechanism of sealing in transected giant axons of squid and earthworms. J. Neurosci. 14, 6638-6651.
65. Kuczmarski, E. R. and Rosenbaum, J. L. (1979) Studies on the organization and localization of actin and myosin in neurons. J. Cell Biol. 80, 356-371.
66. Kwan, M. K., Wall, E. J., Massie, J. and Garfin, S. R. (1992) Strain, stress and stretch of peripheral nerve. Acta Orthop. Scand. 63, 267-272.
67. Lasek, R. J., Paggi, P. and Katz, M. J. (1992) Slow axonal transport mechanisms move neurofilaments relentlessly in mouse optic axons. J. Cell Biol. 117, 607-616.
68. Leone, J. and Ochs, S. (1978) Anoxic block and recovery of axoplasmic transport and electrical excitability of nerve. J. Neurobiol. 9, 229-245.
69. Longet, F.-A. (1842) Anatomie et Physiologie du Systeme Nerveux de l'Homme et des Animaux Vertèbres, Vol. 2. Fortin, Masson et Cie: Paris.
70. Lorenz, T. and Willard, M. (1978) Subcellular fractionation of intra-axonally transported polypeptides in the rabbit visual system. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 75, 505-509.
71. Lubińska, L. (1956a) Outflow from cut ends of nerve fibres. Expl Cell Res. 10, 40-47.
72. Lubińska, L. (1956b) Shape of myelinated nerve fibres and proximo-distal flow of axoplasm. Acta Biol. Exp. 17, 115-133.
73. Lubińska, L. (1977) Early course of Wallerian degeneration in myelinated fibres of the rat phrenic nerve. Brain Res. 130, 47-63.
74. Lundborg, G. and Rydevik, B. L. (1973) Effects of stretching the tibial nerve of the rabbit. J. Bone Jt Surg. 55B, 390-401.
75. Malhotra, S. K. and Van Harreveld, A. (1965) Dorsal roots of the rabbit investigated by freeze-substitution. Anat. Rec. 152, 283-292.
76. Mantyh, P. W., DeMaster, E., Malhotra, A., Ghilardi, J. R., Rogers, S. D., Mantyh, C. R., Liu, H., Basbaum, I., Vigna, S. R., Maggio, J. E. and Simone, D. A. (1995) Receptor endocytosis and dendrite reshaping in spinal neurons after somatosensory stimulation. Science 268, 1629-1632.
77. Marchesi, V. T. (1985) Stabilizing infrastructure of cell membranes. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1, 531-561.
78. Masurovsky, E. B. and Bunge, R. P. (1971) Patterns of myelin degeneration following the rapid death of cells in cultures of peripheral nervous tissue. J. Neuropathol. Expl Neurol. 30, 311-324.
79. Matsuo, E. S. and Tanaka, T. (1992) Patterns in shrinking gels. Nature 358, 482-485.
80. Mire, J. J., Hendelman, W. J. and Bunge, R. P. (1970) Observations on a transient phase of focal swelling in degenerating unmyelinated nerve fibers. J. Cell Biol. 45, 9-22.
81. Moore, S. A., Peterson, R. G., Felten, D. L. and O'Conner, B. L. (1982) Ultrastructural axonal pathology in experimentally diabetic and aging control rats. Brain Res. 8, 317-323.
82. Müller, J. (1838) Progress of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system during the year 1836. In: Essays on Physiology and Hygiene, pp. 229-240. Ed. Anonymous. Haswell, Barrington, and Haswell: Philadelphia.
83. Müller, J. (1840) Elements of Physiology. Translated from the German with notes by William Baly. Taylor and Walton: London.
84. Nauck, E. T. (1931) Bemerkungen uber den mechanisch-funktionellen Bau des Nerven. Verhandl. Anat. Gesellsch. 40, 260-275.
85. Nixon, R. A., Paskevich, P. A., Sihag, R. K. and Thayer, C. Y. (1994) Phosphorylation on carboxyl terminus domains of neurofilament proteins in retinal ganlion cell neurons in vivo: Influences on regional neurofilament accumulation, interneurofilament spacing and axon caliber. J. Cell Biol. 126, 1031-1046.
86. O'Neill, J. H., Jacobs, J. M., Gilliatt, R. W. and Baba, M. (1984) Changes in the compact myelin of single internodes during axonal atrophy. Acta Neuropathol. (Berlin) 63, 313-318.
87. Ochs, S. (1963) Beading phenomena of mammalian myelinated nerve fibers. Science 139, 599-600.
88. Ochs, S. (1964) Axoplasmic flow. In: McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Yearbook, pp. 150-152. Ed. Anonymous. McGraw-Hill: New York.
89. Ochs, S. (1965) Beading of myelinated nerve fibers. Expl Neurol. 2, 84-95.
90. Ochs, S. (1982) Axoplasmic Transport and its Relation to Other Nerve Functions, pp. 1-462. John Wiley-Interscience: New York.
91. Ochs, S. and Burger, E. (1958) Movement of substance proximo-distally in nerve axons as studied with spinal cord injections of radioactive phosphorus. Am. J. Physiol. 94, 499-506.
92. Ochs, S. and Jersild, R. A. Jr (1986) The beaded form of myelinated nerve fibers and fast axoplasmic transport. Nerve Transport Congress, Calgary, 10 July session (Abstr.).
93. Ochs, S. and Jersild, R. A. Jr (1987) Cytoskeletal organelles and myelin structure of beaded nerve fibers. Neuroscience 22, 1041-1056.
94. Ochs, S. and Jersild, R. A. Jr (1990) Myelin intrusions in beaded nerve fibers. Neuroscience 36, 553-567.
95. Ochs, S. and Brimijoin, S. (1993) Axonal transport. In: Peripheral Neuropathy, Vol. 1, pp. 331-360. Eds P. J. Dyck, P. K. Thomas, J. W. Griffin, P. A. Low and J. F. Poduslo. Saunders: Baltimore.
96. Ochs, S., Jersild, R. A. Jr and Li, J.-M. (1989) Slow transport of freely movable cytoskeletal components shown by beading partition of nerve fibers. Neuroscience 33, 421-430.
97. Ochs, S., Dalrymple, D. E. and Richards, G. (1962) Axoplasmic flow in ventral root nerve fibers of the cat. Expl Neurol. 5, 349-363.
98. Ochs, S., Jersild, R. A. Jr, Pourmand, R. and Potter, C. G. (1994) The beaded form of myelinated nerve fibers. Neuroscience 61, 361-372.
99. Ochs, S., Pourmand, R. and Jersild, R. A. Jr (1996) Origin of beading constrictions at the axolemma: presence in unmyelinated axons and after β,β′-iminodipropionitrile (IDPN) degradation of the cytoskeleton. Neuroscience 70, 1081-1096.
100. Ogata, K. and Naito, M. (1996) Blood flow of peripheral nerve effects of dissection, stretching and compression. J. Hand Surg. 11-B, 10-14.
101. 2 on density of microtubules and neurofilaments. J. Neuropathol. Expl Neurol. 35, 167-179.
102. Papasozomenos, S. C., Autilio-Gambetti, L. A. and Gambetti, P. (1981) Reorganization of axoplasmic organelles following β,β′-iminodipropionitrile administration. J. Cell Biol. 91, 866-871.
103. Papasozomenos, S. C., Yoon, M. G., Crane, R., Autilio-Gambetti, L. A. and Gambetti, P. (1982) Redistribution of proteins of fast axonal transport following administration of β,β′-iminodipropionitrile: a quantitative autoradiographic study. J. Cell Biol. 95, 672-675.
104. Peters, A., Palay, S. L. and Webster, H. de F. (1991) The Fine Structure of the Nervous System: Neurons and their Supporting Cells. Oxford University Press: New York.
105. Phillips, M. C. (1972) The physical state of phospholipids and cholesterol in monolayers, bilayers, and membranes. In: Progress in Surface and Membrane Science, Vol. 5, pp. 139-221. Eds J. F. Danielli and M. D. Rosenberg. Academic Press: New York.
106. Plateau, J. A. F. (1873) Statique Experimentale et Theoretique des Liquides Soumis aux Seules Forces Moleculaires. Gauthier-Villars: Paris.
107. Plenk, H. (1934) Die Schwannsche Scheide der markhaltigen Nervenfasern. Z. Mikr. Anat. Forsch. 36, 191-214.
108. Pourmand, R., Ochs, S. and Jersild, R. A. Jr (1994) The relation of the beading of myelinated nerve fibers to the bands of Fontana. Neuroscience 61, 373-380.
109. Pumplin, D. W. and Bloch, R. J. (1993) The membrane skeleton. Trends Cell Biol. 3, 113-117.
110. Purpura, D. P., Bodick, N., Suzuki, K., Rapin, I. and Wurzelmann, S. (1982) Microtubule disarray in cortical dendrites and neurobehavioral failure. I. Golgi and electron microscopic studies. Dev. Brain Res. 5, 287-297.
111. Quéré, D., Di Meglio, J.-M. and Brochard-Wyart, F. (1990) Spreading of liquids on highly curved surfaces. Science 249, 1256-1260.
112. Quinn, P. J. (1981) The fluidity of cell membranes and its regulation. Progr. Biophys. Molec. Biol. 38, 1-104.
113. Robertson, J. D. (1962) The unit membrane of cells and mechanisms of myelin formation. Ass. Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 40, 94-158.
114. Rydevik, B. L., Kwan, M. K., Myers, R. R., Brown, R. A., Triggs, K. J., Woo, S. L. and Garfin, S. R. (1990) An in vitro mechanical and histological study of acute stretching on rabbit tibial nerve. J. Orthopaed. Res. 8, 694-701.
115. Scheibel, M. E. and Scheibel, A. B. (1973) Hippocampal pathology in temporal lobe epilepsy. A Golgi study. In: Epilepsy: Its Phenomena in Man. Ed. M. A. B. Brazier. Academic Press: New York.
116. Schmitt, F. O., Bear, R. S. and Palmer, K. J. (1941) X-ray diffraction studies on the structure of the nerve myelin sheath. J. Cell Comp. Physiol. 18, 31-42.
117. Schneider, D. (1952) Die Dehnbarkeit der markhaltigen Nervenfaser des Frosches in Abhängigkeit von Funktion und Struktur. Z. Naturforsch. 7b, 38-48.
118. Shinitzky, M. (1984) Membrane fluidity and cellular functions. In: Physiology of Membrane Fluidity, Vol. 1. Ed. M. Shinitzky. CRC: Boca Raton.
119. Snyder, R. E. and Smith, R. S. (1985) Rapid axonal transport in Xenopus nerve in divalent cation free media. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 63, 1279-1291.
120. Sobue, K., Kanda, K., Inui, M., Morimot, K. and Kakiuchi, S. (1982) Actin polymerization induced by calspectin, a calmodulin-binding spectrin-like protein. FEBS Lett. 148, 221-225.
121. Sokolansky, G. (1930) Die Morphogenese der Markscheide der peripherischen Nervenfasern bei manchen Wirbeltieren und beim Menschen. Anat. Anz. 69, 161-184.
122. Stebbings, H. and Bennett, C. E. (1975) The sleeve element of microtubules. In: Microtubules and Microtubule Inhibitors, pp. 35-45. Eds M. Borgers and M. DeBrabander. North Holland: Amsterdam.
123. Sunderland, S. (1978a) Nerves and Nerve Injuries, 2nd edn. Williams and Wilkins: Baltimore.
124. Sunderland, S. (1978b) Peripheral nerve fibers. In: Nerves and Nerve Injuries. Ed. S. Sunderland. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh.
125. Sunderland, S. and Bradley, K. C. (1961) Stress-strain phenomena in human peripheral nerve trunks. Brain 84, 102-119.
126. Thomas, P. K. (1963) The connective tissue of peripheral nerve: an electron microscope study. J. Anat. 97, 35-44.
127. Thomas, P. K., Berthold, C.-H. and Ochoa, J. (1993) Microscopic anatomy of the peripheral nervous system: nerve trunks and spinal roots. In: Peripheral Neuropathy, pp. 28-91. Eds P. J. Dyck, P. K. Thomas, J. W. Griffin, P. A. Low and J. F. Poduslo. Saunders: Philadelphia.
128. Thompson, D'Arcy, W. (1942) On Growth and Form. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
129. Todd, R. B. (1847) Nerve. In: Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol III, pp. 590-601. Ed. R. B. Todd. Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper: London.
130. Trave, G., Lacombe, P.-J., Pfuhl, M., Saraste, M. and Pastore, A. (1995) Molecular mechanism of the calcium-induced conformational change in the spectrin EF-hands. EMBO J. 14, 4922-4931.
131. Tsukita, S., Usukara, J. and Ishikawa, H. (1982) The cytoskeleton in myelinated axons: a freeze-etch replica study. Neuroscience 7, 2135-2147.
132. van Harreveld, A. (1966) Brain Tissue Electrolytes. Butterworths: Washington.
133. van Harreveld, A. and Crowell, J. (1964) Electron microscopy after rapid freezing on a metal surface and substitution fixation. Anat. Rec. 149, 381-385.
134. van Harreveld, A. and Ochs, S. (1956) Cerebral impedance changes after circulatory arrest. Am. J. Physiol. 187, 180-192.
135. van Leeuwenhoek, A. (1717) Letter to Abraham van Bleiswyk (2 March 1717) printed in "Epistolae physiologicale super compluribus naturae arcanis" (Beman, Delft, 1719); Epistola XXXII, 310-327 ; and translated in part by Clarke and O'Malley (1968) In: The Human Brain and Spinal Cord, pp. 32-35. Eds E. Clarke and C. D. O'Malley. University of California Press: Berkeley.
136. van Leeuwenhoek, A. (1717) Letter to Abraham van Bleiswyk (2 March 1717) printed in "Epistolae physiologicale super compluribus naturae arcanis" (Beman, Delft, 1719); Epistola XXXII, 310-327 ; and translated in part by Clarke and O'Malley (1968) In: The Human Brain and Spinal Cord, pp. 32-35. Eds E. Clarke and C. D. O'Malley. University of California Press: Berkeley.
137. van Leeuwenhoek, A. (1717) Letter to Abraham van Bleiswyk (2 March 1717) printed in "Epistolae physiologicale super compluribus naturae arcanis" (Beman, Delft, 1719); Epistola XXXII, 310-327 ; and translated in part by Clarke and O'Malley (1968) In: The Human Brain and Spinal Cord, pp. 32-35. Eds E. Clarke and C. D. O'Malley. University of California Press: Berkeley.
138. Viel, A. and Branton, D. (1994) Interchain binding at the tail end of the Drosophila spectrin molecule. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 10839-10843.
139. Viel, A. and Branton, D. (1996) Spectrin: on the path from structure to function. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 8, 49-55.
140. Wall, E. J., Massie, J. B., Kwan, M. K., Rydevik, B. L., Myers, R. R. and Garfin, S. R. (1992) Experimental stretch neuropathy: changes in nerve conduction under tension. J. Bone Jt Surg. 74-B, 126-129.
141. Wang, N., Butler, J. P. and Ingber, D. E. (1993) Mechanotransduction across the cell surface and through the cytoskeleton. Science 260, 1124-1127.
142. Ward, A. A. Jr (1969) The epileptic neuron: chronic foci in animals and man. In: Basic Mechanisms of the Epilepsies, pp. 263-288. Eds H. H. Jasper, A. A. Ward Jr and A. Pope. Little, Brown and Co.: Boston.
143. Weiss, P. and Hiscoe, H. B. (1948) Experiments on the mechanism of nerve growth. J. Expl Zool. 107, 315-395.
144. Weiss, P., Taylor, A. C. and Pillai, P. A. (1962) The nerve fiber as a system in continuous flow; microcinematographic and electronmicroscopic demonstrations. Science 136, 330.
145. Williams, J. L. D. (1988) Nodes on the large pheromone-sensitive dendrites of olfactory hairs of the male silk moth, Antheraea polyphyemus (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Intl J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 17, 145-151.
146. Williams, P. L. and Hall, S. M. (1970) In vivo observations on mature myelinated nerve fibres of the mouse. J. Anat. 107, 31-38.
147. Williams, P. L. and Hall, S. M. (1971) Prolonged in vivo observations of normal peripheral nerve fibres and their acute reactions to crush and deliberate trauma. J. Anat. 8, 397-408.
148. Yawo, H. and Kuno, M. (1985) Calcium dependence of membrane sealing at the cut end of the cockroach giant axon. J. Neurosci. 5, 1626-1632.
149. Young, J. Z. (1936) The structure of nerve fibers in cephalopods and crustacea. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 121, 319-337.
150. Young, J. Z. (1944a) Surface tension and the degeneration of nerve fibres. Nature 154, 521-522.
151. Young, J. Z. (1944b) Contraction, turgor and the cytoskeleton of nerve fibres. Nature 153, 333-335.
152. Young, J. Z. (1945) The history of the shape of a nerve fiber. In: Essays on Growth and Form Presented to D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, pp. 41-94. Eds W. E. LeGros Clark and P. B. Medawar. Clarendon Press: Oxford.
153. Zanobio, B. (1959) Le osservazioni microscopiche di Felice Fontana sulla struttura dei nervi. Physis 1, 307-320.