The pathogensis of atherosclerosis: A critical evaluation of the evidence

Cardiovascular Pathology

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 123-153

  Stehbens, William E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLYCOPROTEIN;

ARTERIOVENOUS SHUNT; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; COLLAGEN METABOLISM; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; NOMENCLATURE; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULSE PRESSURE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; TENSILE STRENGTH; THROMBOGENESIS;

EID: 0030957044     PISSN: 10548807     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1054-8807(96)00090-7     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Stehbens WE. Causality in medical science with reference to coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Perspect Biol Med 1992;36:97-119.
2. Stehbens WE. Basic precepts and the lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis. Med Hypoth 1990;31:105-113.
3. Stehbens WE. Atherosclerosis and degenerative diseases of blood vessels. In: Stehbens WE, Lie JT, eds. Vascular Pathology. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995;175-269.
4. Stehbens WE. Hemodynamics and diseases of systemic blood vessels. In: Stehbens WE, ed. Hemodynamics and the Blood Vessel Wall. Springfield: Thomas, 1979;294-427.
5. Stehbens WE. Pathology of the Cerebral Blood Vessels. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1972;98-130, 351-470.
6. Hueper WC. Arteriosclerosis. Arch Pathol 1945;39:51-65, 117-131.
7. Meyer WW, Walsh SZ, Lind J. Functional morphology of arteries during fetal and post-natal development. In: Schwartz CJ, Werthessen NT, Wolf S, eds. Structure and Function of the Circulation. New York: Plenum Press, 1980;1:95-379.
8. Eisenbrey AB. Arteriovenous aneurysm of the superficial femoral vessels. JAMA 1913;61:2155-2157.
9. Lie JT, Lawrie GM, Morris GC. Aortocoronary bypass saphenous vein graft atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 1977;40:906-914.
10. Stehbens WE, Karmody AM. Venous atherosclerosis associated with arteriovenous fistulas for hemodialysis. Arch Surg 1975;11:176-180.
11. Stehbens WE. The experimental and iatrogenic production of atherosclerosis. In: Hosada S, Yaginuma T, Sugawara M, Taylor MG, Caro CG, eds. Recent Progress in Cardiovascular Mechanics: From Basic Research to Clinical Application. London: Gordon & Breach, 1994: 253-268.
12. Kim KM, Huang S-N. Ultrastructural study of calcification of human aortic valve. Lab Invest 1971;25:357-366.
13. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis - an update. N Engl J Med 1986;314:488-499.
14. Stehbens WE. Intracranial Arterial Aneurysms and Atherosclerosis. Thesis, University of Sydney, 1958.
15. Stehbens WE. The Lipid Hypothesis of Atherogenesis. Austin, TX: Landes, 1993.
16. Martin BJ, Stehbens WE, Davis PF, Ryan PA. Scanning electron microscopic study of hemodynamically induced tears in the internal elastic lamina of rabbit arteries. Pathology 1989;21:207-212.
17. Stary HC, Blankenhorn DH, Chandler AB, et al. A definition of the intima of human arteries and its atherosclerosis-prone regions. Circulation 1992;85:390-405.
18. Jaffé D, Hartroft S, Manning M, Eleta G. Coronary arteries in newborn children. Acta Paediatré Scand 1971;219(suppl):3-28.
19. Roberts WC, Fishbein MC, Golden A. Cardiac pathology after valve replacement by disc prothesis. A study of 61 necropsy patients. Am J Cardiol 1975;35:740-760.
20. Wolinsky H. Comparison of medial growth of human thoracic and abdominal aortas. Circ Res 1970;27:531-538.
21. Fry DL. Hemodynamic forces in atherogenesis. In: Scheinberg P, ed. Cerebrovascular Diseases. New York: Raven Press, 1976;77-113.
22. Holman RL, McGill HC, Strong JP, Gear JC. Arteriosclerosis - the lesion. Am J Clin Nutr 1960;8:85-94.
23. Pesonen E, Norio R, Sarna S. Thickenings in the coronary arteries in infancy as an indication of genetic factors in coronary heart disease. Circulation 1975;51:218-225.
24. Hajjar DP, Wight TN, Smith SC. Lipid accumulation and ultrastructural change within the aortic wall during early spontaneous atherogenesis. Am J Pathol 1980;100:683-706.
25. Stehbens WE. The lipid hypothesis and the role of hemodynamics in atherogenesis. Progr Cardiovasc Dis 1990;33:119-136.
26. Stehbens WE. Experimental induction of atherosclerosis associated with femoral arteriovenous fistulae in rabbits on a stock diet. Atherosclerosis 1992;95:127-135.
27. Texon M. Hemodynamic Basis of Atherosclerosis. Washington, DC: Hemisphere, 1980:59-63.
28. Jones GT, Stehbens WE. The ultrastructure of arteries proximal to chronic experimental carotid-jugular arteriovenous fistulae in rabbits. Pathology 1995;27:36-42.
29. Hazama F, Hashimoto N. An animal model of cerebral aneurysms. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1987;13:77-90.
30. Jones GJ, Martin BJ, Stehbens WE. Endothelium and elastic tears in the afferent arteries of experimental arteriovenous fistulae in rabbits. Int J Exp Pathol 1992;73:405-416.
31. Stehbens WE. Aneurysms. In: Stehbens WE, Lie JT, eds. Vascular Pathology. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995:353-414.
32. Stehbens WE, Martin BJ. Ultrastructural alterations of collagen fibrils in blood vessel walls. Connect Tiss Res 1993;29:319-331.
33. Rogers KM, Stehbens WE. The morphology of matrix vesicles produced in experimental arterial aneurysms in rabbits. Pathology 1986;18:64-71.
34. Stehbens WE. Thrombosis and vascular trauma. In: Stehbens WE, Lie JT, eds. Vascular Pathology. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995:63-87.
35. Vane JR. The Croonian Lecture 1993. The endothelium: maestro of the blood circulation. Phil Trans Roy Soc Lond B 1994;343:225-246.
36. Vanhoutte PM. Endothelium and control of vascular function. Hypertension 1989;13:658-667.
37. Isales C, Rosales O, Sumpio BE. Mediators and mechanisms of cyclic strain and shear stress-induced vascular responses. In: Sumpio BE, ed. Hemodynamic Forces and Vascular Cell Biology. Austin, TX: Landes, 1993:90-115.
38. Schwartz SM, Gajdusek CM, Seiden SC. Vascular wall growth control: the role of endothelium. Arteriosclerosis 1981;1:107-126.
39. Scott RF, Thomas WA, Lee WM, Reiner JM, Florentin RA. Distribution of intimal smooth muscle cell masses and their relationship to early atherosclerosis in the abdominal aortas of young swine. Atherosclerosis 1979;34:291-304.
40. Greenhill NS, Stehbens WE. Scanning electron microscopic study of the anastomosed vein of arteriovenous fistulae. Atherosclerosis 1981; 39:383-393.
41. Dewey CF, Davies PF, Gimbrone MA. Turbulence, disturbed flow, and vascular endothelium. In: Yoshida Y, Caro C, Glagov S, Nerem RM, eds. Role of Blood Flow in Atherogenesis. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 1988:201-204.
42. Bürrig K-F. The endothelium of advanced arteriosclerotic plaques in humans. Arterioscler Thromb 1991;11:1678-1689.
43. Sumpio BE, Banes AJ, Buckley M, Johnson G. Alterations in aortic endothelial cell morphology and cytoskeletal protein synthesis during cyclic tensional deformation. J Vase Surg 1988;7:130-138.
44. Thoma R. Text-Book of General Pathology and Pathological Anatomy (transl Bruce A). London: Adam and Charles Black; 1896:246-247, 384-399.
45. Zarins CK, Weisenberg E, Kolettis G, Stankunavicius R, Glagov S. Differential enlargement of artery segments in response to enlarging atherosclerotic plaques. J Vase Surg 1988;7:386-394.
46. Sumpio BE, Banes AJ. Response of porcine aortic smooth muscle cells to cyclic tensional deformation in culture. J Surg Res 1988;44: 696-701.
47. Ljung B, Sivertsson R. The inhibitory response of vascular smooth muscle to vibrations. In: Bevan JA, Godfraind T, Maxwell RA, Vanhoutte PM, eds. Vascular Neuroeffector Mechanisms. New York: Raven Press, 1980:207-212.
48. Sumpio BE. Mechanical stress and cell growth. J Vase Surg 1989; 10:570-571.
49. Meyer FB, Huston J, Riederer SS. Pulsatile increases in aneurysm size determined by cine phase-contrast MR angiography. J Neurosurg 1993;78:879-883.
50. Stehbens WE, Liepsch DW, Poll A, Erhardt W. Recording of unexpectedly high frequency vibrations of blood vessel walls in experimental arteriovenous fistulae in rabbits using a laser vibrometer. Biorheology 1995;32:631-641.
51. Rinaldi G, Bohr D. Plasma membrane and its abnormalities in hypertension. Am J Med Sci 1988;295:389-395.
52. Staubesand J, Fischer N. Collagen dysplasia and matrix vesicles. Researches with the electron microscope into the problem of so-called "weakness of the vessel wall." Path Res Pract 1979;165:374-391.
53. Kaufman OY, Shenderov SM, Pozdnyakov OM. Ultrastructure of the femoral arterial wall in rats with chronic regional arterial hypotension (transl from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologie i Meditsiny) 1981; 91:502-503.
54. Isner JM, Kearney M, Bortman S, Passen J. Apoptosis in human atherosclerosis and restenosis. Circulation 1995;91:2703-2711.
55. Campbell JH, Kalevitch SG, Rennick RE, Campbell GR. Extracellular matrix - smooth muscle phenotype modulation by macrophages. Ann NY Acad Sci USA 1990;598:159-166.
56. Lendon CL, Davies MJ, Born GVR, Richardson PD. Atherosclerotic plaque caps are locally weakened when macrophage density is increased. Atherosclerosis 1991;87:87-90.
57. Furchgott RF. Role of endothelium in responses of vascular smooth muscle. Circ Res 1983;53:557-573.
58. Walpola PL, Gotlieb AI, Cybulsky MI, Langille BL. Expression of ICAM-I and VCAM-I and monocyte adherence in arteries exposed to altered shear stress. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 1995;15:2-10.
59. Dartsch PC, Hämmerle H, Betz E. Orientation of cultured arterial smooth muscle cells growing in cyclically stretched substrates. Acta Anat 1986;125:108-113.
60. Davies PF, Tripathi SC. Mechanical stress mechanisms and the cell. An endothelial paradigm. Circ Res 1993;72:239-245.
61. Vane JR, Botting RM, Pharmacodynamic profile of prostacyclin. Am J Cardiol 1995;75:3A-10A.
62. Faury G, Ristori MT, Vardetti J, Jacob MO, Robert L. Effect of elastin peptides on vascular tone. J Vase Res 1995;32:112-119.
63. Freestone T, Turner RJ, Coady A, Higman DJ, Greenhalgh RM, Powell JT. Inflammation and matrix metalloproteinases in the enlarging abdominal aortic aneurysm. Arterioscler Thromb Vase Biol 1995;15: 1145-1151.
64. Osborne-Pelligrin MJ, Coutard M. Effect of contralateral nephrectomy alone or in association with hypertension on rat renal artery lesions. Atherosclerosis 1985;57:267-280.
65. Coutard M, Osborne-Pelligrin M. Rupture of the internal elastic lamina and vascular fragility in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Stroke 1991;22:510-515.
66. Smith RA, Stehbens WE, Weber P. Hemodynamically-induced increase in soluble collagen in the anastomosed veins of experimental arteriovenous fistulae. Atherosclerosis 1976;23:429-436.
67. Yu SY. Cross-linking of elastin in human atherosclerotic aortas. Lab Invest 1971;25:121-125.
68. Kucich U, Christner P, Lippmann M, et al. Utilization of a peroxidase antiperoxidase complex in an enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay of elastin-derived peptides in human plasma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:709-713.
69. Merrilees MJ, Tiang KM, Scott L. Changes in collagen fibril diameters across artery walls including a correlation with glycosaminoglycan content. Connect Tissue Res 1987;16:237-257.
70. Rogers KM, Merrilees MJ, Stehbens WE. The glycosaminoglycan content of blood vessel walls of experimental aneurysms and arteriovenous fistulae. Atherosclerosis 1985;58:139-148.
71. Thonar EJ-MA, Kuettner KE. Biochemical basis of age-related changes in proteoglycans. In: Wight TN, Mechan RP, eds. Biology of Proteoglycans. Orlando, FL: Academic, 1987:211-246.
72. Vesselinovitch D. Animal models of atherosclerosis, their contributions and pitfalls. Artery 1979;5:193-206.
73. Goldstein JL, Brown MS. Familial hypercholesterolemia. In: Stanbury JB, Wyngaarden JB, Fredrickson DS, Goldstein JL, Brown MJ, eds. The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983;672-712.
74. Stehbens WE. Limitations of the epidemiological method in coronary heart disease. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:818-820.
75. Smith RL. Diet, Blood Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease: A Critical Review of the Literature. Santa Monica: Vector Enterprises, 1991.
76. Benditt EP, Benditt JM. Evidence for a monocausal origin of human atherosclerotic plaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1973;70:1753-1756.
77. Clowes AW, Benditt AW, Ryan GB, Breslow JL, Karnovsky MJ. Absence of enhanced intimal thickening in the response of the carotid arterial wall to endothelial injury in hypercholesterolemic rats. Lab Invest 1976; 35:6-17.
78. Benditt EP, Schwartz SM. Blood vessels. In: Rubin E, Farber JL, eds. Pathology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1988:461.
79. Caro CG, Fitzgerald JM, Schroter RC. Atheroma and arterial wall shear. Observations, correlation and proposal of a shear dependent mass transfer mechanism for atherogenesis. Proc Roy Soc London (Biol) 1971;117:109-159.
80. Fry DL. Certain histological and chemical responses of the vascular interface to acutely induced mechanical stress in the aorta of the dog. Circ Res 1969;24:93-108.
81. Gerard JH, Charlesworth DM. Vibration and Arteriosclerosis. In: Sumpio BE, ed. Hemodynamic Forces and Vascular Cell Biology. Austin, TX: Landes, 1993:38-46.
82. Dock W, Mandelbaum H, Mandelbaum RA. Ballistocardiography. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1953:203.
83. Radin EL, Parker HG, Pugh JW, Steinburg RS, Paul IL, Rose RM. Response of joints to impact loading. III Relationship between trabecular microfractures and cartilage degeneration. J Biomech 1973;6:51- 57.
84. Walton KW. The pathology of Raynaud's phenomenon of occupational origin. In: Taylor W, ed. The Vibration Syndrome. London: Academic, 1974:109-119.
85. Stein PD, Walburn FJ, Sabbah HN. Turbulent stresses in the region of aortic and pulmonary valves. J Biomech Engineer 1982;104:238-244.
86. Stein PD, Sabbah HN. Turbulent blood flow in the ascending aorta of humans with normal and diseased aortic valves. Circ Res 1976;39: 58-65.
87. Ferguson GG. Turbulence in human intracranial saccular aneurysm. J Neurosurg 1970;33:485-497.
88. Hellums JD, Brown CH. Blood cell damage by mechanical forces. In: Hwang NHC, Normann NA, eds. Cardiovascular Flow Dynamics and Measurements. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1977:799-823.
89. Chamberlain JK, O'Brien JF, Christ LM, Breckenbridge RT. Intravascular hemolysis with traumatic arteriovenous fistula. NY State J Med 1974;74:686-688.
90. Dallaire M, Chamberland M. Rhabdomyolyse sévère chez un patient recevant lovastatine, danazol et doxycycline. Canad Med Ass J 1994; 150:1991-1994.
91. Mansoor GA, White WB, Grunnett M, Ruby ST. Intracerebral hemorrhage with carotid endarterectomy associated with ipsilateral fibrinoid necrosis: a consequence of the hyperperfusion syndrome. J Vase Surg 1996;23:147-151.
92. Odell JA, Keller A, Miles MJ. A method for studying flow-induced polymer degradation: verification of chain halving. Polymer Commun 1983;24:7-10.
93. Kausch HH. Polymer Fracture. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1987: 187-194.
94. Soni SN, McDonald E, Merino C. Rhabdomyolysis after exercise. Postgrad Med 1993;94:128-132.
95. Lapveteläinen T, Nevalainen T, Parkkinen JJ, et al. Lifelong moderate running training increases the incidence and severity of osteoarthritis in the knee joint of C578L mice. Anat Rec 1995;242:159-165.
96. Hoff HF. Biochemistry and cell biology of atherogenesis. In: Stehbens WE, Lie JT, eds. Vascular Pathology. London: Chapman & Hall, 1995:271-312.
97. Witztum JL. Role of oxidized low density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. Br Heart J 1993;69(suppl):S12-S18.
98. Wang YH, Leibholz J, Bryden WL, Fraser DR. Lipid peroxidation status as an index to evaluate the influence of dietary fats on vitamin E requirements of young pigs. Br J Nutr 1996;75:81-95.
99. Reid GM. The pharmacological role of zinc: evidence from clinical studies on animals. Med Hypoth 1981;7:207-215.
100. Gibson RS. Content and bioavailability of trace elements in vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59(suppl):1223S-1232S.