Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis - Clinical and molecular aspects of a rediscovered pathogen

Journal of Medical Microbiology

Volumn 46, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 360-371

  Enright, M C ^a   McKenzie, H ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CEPHALOSPORIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; ERYTHROMYCIN; KANAMYCIN; NEOMYCIN; STREPTOMYCIN; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; TRIMETHOPRIM;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; DNA HYBRIDIZATION; DNA SEQUENCE; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; MOLECULAR GENETICS; MORAXELLA CATARRHALIS; NEISSERIA; NOMENCLATURE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE;

EID: 0030940203     PISSN: 00222615     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1099/00222615-46-5-360     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Catlin BW. Branhamella catarrhalis: an organism gaining respect as a pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990; 3: 293-320.
2. Berk SL. From Micrococcus to Moraxella: the reemergence of Branhamella catarrhalis. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 2254-2257.
3. Frosch P, Kolle W. Die Mikrokokken. In: Flugge C (ed) Die Mikroorganismen. Leipzig, Germany, Verlag von Vogel. 1896; 154-155.
4. Seifert O. Sammlungs Klinischer Vortrage, Leipzig, Germany. 1882; 240: 21.
5. Ghon A, Pfeiffer H. Der Mikrococcus catarrhalis (R. Pfeiffer) als Krankheitserreger. Z Klin Med 1902; 44: 263-281.
6. Dunn RA, Gordon MH. Clinical and bacteriological aspects of an epidemic simulating influenza. BMJ 1905; 2: 421-427.
7. Gordon JE. The gram-negative cocci in colds and influenza. Influenza studies VII. J Infect Dis 1921; 29: 462-494.
8. Bøvre K. The genus Moraxella. In: Krieg NR. Holt JG (eds) Bergey's Manual of systematic bacteriology, vol 1. Baltimore, USA. Williams and Wilkins. 1984; 296-303.
9. Catlin BW. Transfer of the organism named Neisseria catarrhalis to Branhamella gen. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1970; 20: 155-159.
10. Véron M, Lenvoisé-Furet A, Coustère C, Ged C, Grimont F. Relatedness of three species of "false Neisseria", Neisseria caviae, Neisseria cuniculi and Neisseria ovis, by DNA DNA hybridizations and fatty-acid analysis. Int J Syst Bacterial 1993; 43: 210-220.
11. Rossau R, Van Landschoot A, Gillis M, De Ley J. Taxonomy of Moraxellaceae fam. nov., a new bacterial family to accommodate the genera Moraxella, Acinetobacter, and Psychrobacter and related organisms, Int J Syst Bacteriol 1991; 41: 310-319.
12. Enright MC, Carter PE, MacLean IA, McKenzie H. Phylogenetic relationships between some members of the genera Neisseria, Acinetobacter, Moraxella, and Kingella based on partial 16S ribosomal DNA sequence analysis. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1994; 44: 387-391.
13. General Discussion: Section 1. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 38-39.
14. Ahmad F, Young H, McLeod DT, Croughan MJ, Calder MA. Characterisation of Branhamella catarrhalis and differentiation from Neisseria species in a diagnostic laboratory. J Clin Pathol 1987; 40: 1369-1373.
15. Young H, Harris AB, Tapsall JW. Differentiation of gonococcal and non-gonococcal neisseriae by the superoxol test. Br J Vener Dis 1984; 60: 87-89.
16. Riley TV A note on hydrolysis of tributyrin by Branhamella and Neisseria. J Appl Bacteriol 1987; 62: 539-542.
17. Peiris V, Ralphson K, Norris S, Bennett C. Not Branhamella catarrhalis: misidentification of oxidase-positive. Gram-negative cocci isolated from the genital tract. J Infect 1993; 27: 338-339.
18. Faden H, Harabuchi Y, Hong JJ and Tonawanda/Williamsville Pediatrics. Epidemiology of Moraxella catarrhalis in children during the first 2 years of life: relationship to otitis media. J Infect Dis 1994; 169: 1312-1317.
19. Ejlertsen T, Thisted E, Ebbesen F, Olesen B, Renneberg J. Branhamella catarrhalis in children and adults. A study of prevalence, time of colonisation, and association with upper and lower respiratory tract infections. J Inject 1994; 29: 23-31.
20. Vaneechoutte M, Verschraegen G, Claeys G, Weise B, van den Abeele AM. Respiratory tract carrier rates of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis in adults and children and interpretation of the isolation of M. catarrhalis from sputum. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28: 2674-2680.
21. Bluestone CD. Otitis media and sinusitis in children. Role of Branhamella catarrhalis. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 132-141.
22. Pichichero ME, Pichichero CL. Persistent acute otitis media: 1. Causative pathogens. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995; 14: 178-183.
23. Dickinson DP, Loos BG, Dryja DM, Bernstein JM. Restriction fragment mapping of Branhamella catarrhalis: a new tool for studying the epidemiology of this middle ear pathogen. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 205-208.
24. Thoene DE, Johnson CE. Pharmacotherapy of otitis media. Pharmacotherapy 1991; 11: 212-221.
25. Wald ER, Milmoe GJ, Bowen A'D, Ledesma-Medina J, Salamon N, Bluestone CD. Acute maxillary sinusitis in children. N Engl J Med 1981; 304: 749-754.
26. Jousimies-Somer HR, Savolainen S, Ylikoski JS. Bacteriological findings of acute maxillary sinusitis in young adults. J Clin Microbiol 1988; 26: 1919-1925.
27. Slevin NJ, Aitken J, Thornley PE. Clinical and microbiological features of Branhamella catarrhalis bronchopulmonary infections. Lancet 1984; 1: 782-783.
28. Ninane G, Joly J, Kraytman M. Bronchopulmonary infection due to Branhamella catarrhalis: 11 cases assessed by transtracheal puncture. BMJ 1978; 1: 276-278.
29. Thornley PE, Aitken J, Drennan CJ, MacVicar J, Slevin NJ. Branhamella catarrhalis infection of the lower respiratory tract: reliable diagnosis by sputum examination. BMJ 1982; 285: 1537-1538.
30. Yuen KY, Seto WH, Ong SG. The significance of Branhamella catarrhalis in bronchopulmonary infection - a case-control study. J Infect 1989; 19: 251-256.
31. DiGiovanni C, Riley TV, Hoyne GF, Yeo R, Cooksey P. Respiratory tract infections due to Branhamella catarrhalis: epidemiological data from Western Australia. Epidemiol Infect 1987; 99: 445-453.
32. McLeod DT, Ahmad F, Power JT, Calder MA, Seaton A. Bronchopulmonary infection due to Branhamella catarrhalis. BMJ 1983; 287: 1446-1447.
33. McLeod DT, Ahmad F, Capewell S, Croughan MJ, Calder MA, Seaton A. Increase in bronchopulmonary infection due to Branhamella catarrhalis. BMJ 1986; 292: 1103-1105.
34. Wright PW, Wallace RJ, Shepherd JR. A descriptive study of 42 cases of Branhamella catarrhalis pneumonia. Am J Med 1990; 88: Suppl 5A: 2S-8S.
35. Ernst TN, Philp M. Bacterial tracheitis caused by Branhamella catarrhalis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1987; 6: 574.
36. Wong VK, Mason WH. Branhamella catarrhalis as a cause of bacterial tracheitis. Pediatr Inject Dis J 1987; 6: 945-946.
37. Alligood GA, Kenny JF. Tracheitis and supraglottis associated with Branhamella catarrhalis and respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 8: 190-191.
38. Meyer GA, Shope TR, Waecker NJ, Lanningham FH. Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis bacteremia in children. A report of two patients and review of the literature. Clin Pediatr 1995; 34: 146-150.
39. Collazos J, de Miguel J, Ayarza R. Moraxella catarrhalis bacteremic pneumonia in adults: two cases and review of the literature. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1992; 11: 237-240.
40. Alaeus A, Stiernstedt G. Branhamella catarrhalis septicemia in an immunocompetent adult. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 115-116.
41. Wong VK, Ross LA. Branhamella catarrhalis septicemia in an infant with AIDS. Scand J Infect Dis 1988; 20: 559-560.
42. CDR Weekly Reports. London, Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre. 1992-1995.
43. Kostiala AAl, Honkanen T. Branhamella catarrhalis as a cause of acute purulent pericarditis. J Infect 1989; 19: 291-292.
44. Ahmad F, McLeod DT, Power JT, Calder MA. Branhamella catarrhalis prevalence in a hospital population. J Hosp Infect 1985; 6: 71-74.
45. Patterson TF, Patterson JE, Masecar BL, Barden GE, Hierhalzer WJ, Zervos MJ. A nosocomial outbreak of Branhamella catarrhalis confirmed by restriction endonuclease analysis. J Infect Dis 1988; 157: 996-1001.
46. McKenzie H, Morgan MG, Jordens JZ, Enright MC, Bain M. Characterisation of hospital isolates of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis by SDS-PAGE of whole-cell proteins, immunoblotting and restriction-endonuclease analysis. J Med Microbiol 1992; 37: 70-76.
47. Morgan MG, McKenzie H, Enright MC, Bain M, Emmanuel FXS. Use of molecular methods to characterize Moraxella catarrhalis strains in a suspected outbreak of nosocomial infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1992; 11: 305-312.
48. Richards SJ, Greening AP, Enright MC, Morgan MG, McKenzie H. Outbreak of Moraxella catarrhalis in a respiratory unit. Thorax 1993; 48: 91-92.
49. Ikram RB, Nixon M, Aitken J, Wells E. A prospective study of isolation of Moraxella catarrhalis in a hospital during the winter months. J Hosp Infect 1993; 25: 7-14.
50. Wallace RJ, Steingrube VA, Nash DR et al. BRO β-lactamases of Branhamella catarrhalis, and Moraxella subgenus Moraxella, including evidence for chromosomal β-lactamase transfer by conjugation in B catarrhalis, M. nonliquefaciens, and M. lacunata. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1989; 33: 1845-1854.
51. Philippon A, Riou JY, Guibourdenche M, Sotolongo F. Detection, distribution and inhibition of Branhamella catarrhalis β-lactamases. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 64-69.
52. Hoi-Dang AB, Brisele Bouguenec C, Barthelemy M, Labia R. Novel β-lactamase from Branhamella catarrhalis. Ann Microbiol 1978; 129B: 397-406.
53. Wallace RJ, Nash DR, Steingrube VA. Antibiotic susceptibilities and drug resistance in Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis. Am J Med 1990; 88 Suppl 5A: 46S-50S.
54. Fung CP, Powell M, Seymour A, Yuan M, Williams JD. The antimicrobial susceptibility of Moraxella catarrhalis isolated in England and Scotland in 1991. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 30: 47-55.
55. Farmer T, Reading C. β-lactamases of Branhamella catarrhalis and their inhibition by clavulanic acid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1982; 21: 506-508.
56. Nash DR, Wallace RJ, Steingrube VA, Shurin PA. Isoelectric focusing of β-lactamases from sputum and middle ear isolates of Branhamella catarrhalis recovered in the United States. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 48-54.
57. Fung C-P, Yeo S-F, Livermore DM. Extraction of betalactamase from Moraxella catarrhalis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994; 34: 183-184.
58. Kamme C, Vang M, Ståhl S. Intrageneric and intergeneric transfer of Branhamella catarrhalis β-lactamase production. Scand J Infect Dis 1984; 16: 153-155.
59. Kamme C, Vang M, Ståhl S. Transfer of β-lactamase production in Branhamella catarrhalis. Scand J Infect Dis 1983; 15: 225-226.
60. Eliasson I, Kamme C, Prellner K. Beta-lactamase production in the upper respiratory tract flora. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1986; 5: 507-512.
61. Steingrube VA, Wallace RJ, Beaulieu D. A membrane-bound precursor β-lactamase in strains of Moraxella catarrhalis and Moraxella nonliquefaciens that produce periplasmic BRO-1 and BRO-2 β-lactamases. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 31: 237-244.
62. Kamme C, Eliasson I, Knutson BK, Vang M. Plasmid mediated β-lactamase in Branhamella catarrhalis. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 55-63.
63. Mölstad S, Eliasson I, Hovelius B, Kamme C, Schalén C. Beta-lactamase production in the upper respiratory tract flora in relation to antibiotic consumption: a study in children attending day nurseries. Scand J Infect Dis 1988; 20: 329-334.
64. Christensen JJ, Keiding J, Schumacher H, Bruun B. Recognition of a new Branhamella catarrhalis β-lactamase BRO-3. J Antimicrob Chemother 1991; 28: 774-775.
65. Robledano L, Rivera MJ, Otal I, Gomez-Lus R. Enzymatic modification of aminoglycoside antibiotics by Branhamella catarrhalis carrying an R factor. Drugs Exp Clin Res 1987; 13: 137-143.
66. Hol C, van Dijke EEM, Verduin CM, Verhoef J, van Dijk H. Experimental evidence for Moraxella-induced penicillin neutralization in pneumococcal pneumonia. J Infect Dis 1994; 170: 1613-1616.
67. Wardle JK. Branhamella catarrhalis as an indirect pathogen. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 93-96.
68. Doern GV. Trends in antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens of the respiratory tract. Am J Med 1995; 99 Suppl 6B: 3S-7S.
69. Kallings I. Sensitivity of Branhamella catarrhalis to oral antibiotics. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 17-22.
70. Roberts MC, Pang Y, Spencer RC, Winstanley TG, Brown BA, Wallace RJ. Tetracycline resistance in Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis: demonstration of two clonal outbreaks by using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 2453-2455.
71. Zheng X, Cao Y. Beta-lactamase producing Branhamella in Beijing, China. Pediatr Infect J 1988; 7: 744.
72. Vaneechoutte M, Verschraegen G, Claeys G, van den Abeele A-M. Serological typing of Branhamella catarrhalis strains on the basis of lipopolysaccharide antigens. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28: 182-187.
73. Ahmad F, McLeod DT, Power JT, Calder MA. Branhamella catarrhalis prevalence in a hospital population. J Hosp Infect 1985; 6: 71-74.
74. Bartos LC, Murphy TF. Comparison of the outer membrane proteins of 50 strains of Branhamella catarrhalis. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 761-765.
75. Picard B, Goullet P, Denamur E, Suermondt G. Esterase electrophoresis: a molecular tool for studying the epidemiology of Branhamella catarrhalis nosocomial infection. Epidemiol Infect 1989; 103: 547-554.
76. Fox RH, McClain DE. Evaluation of the taxonomic relationship of Micrococcus cryophilus, Branhamella catarrhalis, and Neisseriae by comparative polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of soluble proteins. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1974; 24: 172-176.
77. Soto-Hernandez JL, Holtsclaw-Berk S, Harvill LM, Berk SL. Phenotypic characteristics of Branhamella catarrhalis strains. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27: 903-908.
78. Cook PP, Hecht DW, Snydman DR. Nosocomial Branhamella catarrhalis in a paediatric intensive care unit: risk factors for disease. J Hosp Infect 1989; 13: 299-307.
79. Kawakami Y, Ueno I, Katsuyama T, Furihata K, Matsumoto H. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of genomic DNA of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis isolates in a hospital. Microbiol Immunol 1994; 38: 801-895.
80. Tenover FC, Arbeit RD, Goering RV et al. Interpreting chromosomal DNA restriction patterns produced by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis: criteria for bacterial strain typing. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 2233-2239.
81. Selander RK, Caugant DA, Whittam TS. Genetic structure and variation in natural populations of Escherichia coli. In: Neidhardt FC, Ingraham JL, Law KB, Magasanik B, Schaechter M, Umbarger HF. (eds) Escherichia coil and Salmonella typhimurium cellular and molecular biology, vol 2. Washington, USA. American Society for Microbiology. 1987: 1625-1648.
82. Smith JM, Smith NH, O'Rourke M, Spratt BG. How clonal are bacteria? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 4384-4388.
83. Murphy TF. The surface of Branhamella catarrhalis: a systematic approach to the surface antigens of an emerging pathogen. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 81 Suppl: S75-S77.
84. Fdebrink P, Jansson P-E, Rahman MM et al. Structural studies of the O-polysaccharide from the lipopolysaccharide of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis serotype A (strain ATCC 25238). Carbohydr Res 1994; 257: 269-284.
85. Masoud H, Perry MB, Brisson J-R, Uhrin D, Richards JC. Structural elucidation of the backbone oligosaccharide from the lipopolysaccharide of Moraxella catarrhalis serotype A. Can J Chem 1994; 72: 1466-1477.
86. Rahman M, Holme T. Antibody response in rabbits to serotype-specific determinants in lipopolysaccharides from Moraxella catarrhalis. J Med Microbiol 1996; 44: 348-354.
87. Edebrink P, Jansson P-E, Rahman MM, Widmalm G, Holme T, Rahman M. Structural studies of the O-antigen oligosaccharides from two strains of Moraxella catarrhalis scrotype C. Carbohydr Res 1995; 266: 237-261.
88. Doyle WJ. Animal models of otitis media: other pathogens. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 81 Suppl: S45-S47.
89. Storm Fomsgaard J, Fomsgaard A, Høiby N, Bruun B, Galanos C. Comparative immunochemistry of lipopolysaccharides from Branhamella catarrhalis strains. Infect Immun 1991; 59: 3346-3349.
90. Beachey EH. Bacterial adherence: adhesin-receptor interactions mediating the attachment of bacteria to mucosal surfaces. J Infect Dis 1981; 143: 325-345.
91. Marrs CF, Weir S. Pili (fimbriae) of Branhamella species. Am J Med 1990; 88 Suppl 5A; 36S-40S.
92. Hermodson MA, Chen KCS, Buchanan TM. Neisseria pili proteins: amino-terminal amino acid sequences and identification of an unusual amino acid. Biochemistry 1978; 17: 442-445.
93. Schoolnik GK, Fernandez R, Tai YT, Rothbard J, Gothschlich EC. Gonococcal pili: primary structure and receptor binding domain. J Exp Med 1984; 159: 1351-1370.
94. Froholm LO, Sletten K. Purification and N-terminal sequence of a fimbrial protein from Moraxella nonliquefaciens. FEBS Lett 1977; 73: 29-32.
95. Sastry PA, Pearlstone JR, Smillie LB, Paranchych W. Amino acid sequence of pilin isolated from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAK. FEBS Lett 1983; 151: 253-256.
96. Taylor RK, Miller VL, Furlong DB, Mekalanos JJ. Use of phoA gene fusions to identify a pilus colonisation factor coordinately regulated with cholera toxin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 2833-2837.
97. Marrs CF, Schoolnik G, Koomey JM, Hardy J, Rothbard J, Falkow S. Cloning and sequencing of a Moraxella bovis pilin gene. J Bacteriol 1985; 163: 132-139.
98. Ruehl WW, Marrs CF, Fernandez R, Falkow S, Schoolnik GK. Purification, characterization, and pathogenicity of Moraxella bovis pili. J Exp Med 1988; 168: 983-1002.
99. Klemm P. Fimbrial adhesins of Escherichia coli. Rev Infect Dis 1985; 7: 321-340.
100. Ahmed K, Rikitomi N, Nagatake T, Matsumoto K. Electron microscopic observation of Branhamella catarrhalis. Microbiol Immunol 1990; 34: 967-975.
101. Ahmed K, Rikitomi N, Matsumoto K. Fimbriation, hemagglutination and adherence properties of fresh clinical isolates of Branhamella catarrhalis. Microbiol Immunol 1992; 36: 1009-1017.
102. Ahmed K, Masaki H, Dai TC et al. Expression of fimbriae and host response in Branhamella catarrhalis respiratory infections. Microbiol Immunol 1994; 38: 767-771.
103. Ahmed K, Matsumoto K, Rikitomi N, Nagatake T. Attachment of Moraxella catarrhalis to pharyngeal epithelial cells is mediated by a glycosphingolipid receptor. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1996; 135: 305-309.
104. Densen P. Interaction of complement with Neisseria meningitidis and Neisaeria gonorrhoeae. Clin Microbiol Rev 1989; 2 Suppl: S11-S17.
105. Densen P. Complement deficiencies and meningococcal disease, Clin Exp Immunol 1991; 86 Suppl 1: 57-62.
106. Verduin CM, Hol C, Bootsma HJ, Verhoef J, van Dijk H. Observations on constitutional resistance to infection, Immunol Today 1993; 14: 44-45.
107. Verduin CM, Jansze M, Hol C, Mollnes TE, Verhoef J, van Dijk H. Differences in complement activation between complement-resistant and complement-sensitive Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis strains occur at the level of membrane attack complex formation. Infect Immun 1994; 62: 589-595.
108. Helminen ME, Maciver I, Paris M et al. A mutation affecting expression of a major outer membrane protein of Moraxella catarrhalis alters serum resistance and survival in vivo. J Infect Dis 1993; 168: 1194-1201.
109. Hol C, Verduin CM, Van Dyke EEA, Verhoef J, Fleer A, van Dijk H. Complement resistance is a virulence factor of Branhamella (Moraxella) catarrhalis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1995; 11: 207-212.
110. Payne SM. Iron acquisition in microbial pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol 1993; 1: 66-69.
111. Wooldridge KG, Williams PH. Iron uptake mechanisms of pathogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev 1993; 12: 325-348.
112. Cornelissen CN, Sparling PF. Iron piracy: acquisition of transferrin-bound iron by bacterial pathogens. Mol Microbiol 1994; 14: 843-850.
113. Schryvers AB, Lee BC. Comparative analysis of the transferrin and lactoferrin binding proteins in the family Neisseriaceae. Can J Microbiol 1989; 35: 409-415.
114. Campagnari AA, Shanks KL, Dyer DW. Growth of Moraxella catarrhalis with human transferrin and lactoferrin: expression of iron-repressible proteins without siderophore production. Infect Immun 1994; 62: 4909-4914.
115. Novotny P, Short JA, Walker PD. An electron-microscope study of naturally occurring and cultured cells of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. J Med Microbiol 1975; 8: 413-427.
116. Reyn A, Family I, Neisseriaceae Prévot. In: Buchanan RE, Gibbons NE (eds) Bergey's Manual of determinative bacteriology, 8th edn. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins. 1974: 427-433, 442-443.
117. Hellio R, Guibourdenche M, Collatz E, Riou JY. The envelope structure of Branhamella catarrhalis as studied by transmission electron microscopy. Ann Inst Pasteur Microbiol 1988; 139: 515-525.
118. Ahmed K, Rikitomi N, Ichinose A, Matsumoto K. Possible presence of a capsule in Branhamella catarrhalis. Microbiol Immunol 1991; 35: 361-366.
119. Devalia JL, Grady D, Harmanyeri Y, Tabaqchali S, Davies RJ. Histamine synthesis by respiratory tract micro-organisms: possible role in pathogenicity. J Clin Pathol 1989; 42: 516-522.
120. Wilson R. Haemophilus influenzae in chronic and recurrent chest infections. Respir Dis Pract 1987; Suppl 1: 7.
121. Eliasson I. Serological identification of Branhamella catarrhalis. Serological evidence for infection. Drugs 1986; 31 Suppl 3: 7-10.
122. Goldblatt D, Turner MW, Levinsky RJ. Branhamella catarrhalis: antigenic determinants and the development of the IgG subclass response in childhood. J Infect Dis 1990; 162: 1128-1135.
123. Carson RT, McDonald DF, Kehoe MA, Calvert JE. Influence of Gm allotype on the IgG subclass response to streptococcal M protein and outer membrane proteins of Moraxella catarrhalis. Immunology 1994; 83: 107-113.
124. Murphy TF. Studies of the outer membrane proteins of Branhamella catarrhalis. Am J Med 1990; 88 Suppl 5A: 41S-45S.
125. Helminen ME, Maciver I, Latimer JL et al. A large, antigenically conserved protein on the surface of Moraxella catarrhalis is a target for protective antibodies. J Infect Dis 1994; 170: 867-872.
126. Helminen ME, Beach R, Maciver I, Jarosik G, Hansen EJ, Leinonen M. Human immune response against outer membrane proteins of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis determined by immunoblotting and enzyme immunoassay. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1995; 2: 35-39.
127. Sethi S, Hill SL, Murphy TF. Serum antibodies to outer membrane proteins (OMPs) of Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis in patients with bronchiectasis: identification of OMP B1 as an important antigen. Infect Immun 1995; 63: 1516-1520.
128. Sarwar J, Campagnari AA, Kirkham C, Murphy TF. Characterization of an antigenically conserved heat-modifiable major outer membrane protein of Branhamella catarrhalis. Infect Immun 1992; 60: 804-809.
129. Rahman M, Holme T, Jonsson I, Krook A. Lack of serotype-specific antibody response to lipopolysaccharide antigens of Moraxella catarrhalis during lower respiratory tract infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995; 14: 297-304.