Exercise, immunity and aging

Aging Clinical and Experimental Research

Volumn 9, Issue 1-2, 1997, Pages 42-56

  Venkatraman, J T ^a   Fernandes, G ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

aging; cytokines; exercise; immunity; nutritional status; T cell functions

Indexed keywords

GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4;

AGING; EXERCISE; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; NATURAL KILLER CELL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW;

EID: 0030914580     PISSN: 03949532     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/bf03340127     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Mackinodan T , Kay M.M.B.: Age influence on the immune system (Review). Adv. Immunol. 29: 287-330, 1980
2. Hirokawa K., Utsuyama M., Kasai M., Kurashima C.: Aging and immunity. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 42 537-548, 1992.
3. Goodwin J S.: Decreased immunity and increased morbidity in the elderly. Nutr. Rev. 53: S41-S46, 1995.
4. Ben-Yehuda A., Weksler M.E : Immune senescence: mechanisms and clinical implications. Cancer Invest. 10: 523-531, 1992.
5. Walford R.L.: MHC regulation of aging: an extension of the immunologic theory of aging. In: Warner H.R. Butler R N., Sprott R.L., Schneider E.L. (Eds.), Modern Biological Theories of Aging. Raven Press, New York, 1987. pp. 243-255.
6. Sansoni P., Cossarizza A., Brianti V., Fagnoni F., Snelli G., Monti D., Marcato A., Passeri G., Ortolani C , Forti E.: Lymphocyte subsets and natural killer cell activity in healthy old people and centenarians. Blood 82: 2767-2773, 1993.
7. Ernst D N., Weigle O., Hobbs M.V.: Aging and lymphokine gene expression by T cell subsets. Nutr. Rev. 53 (Pt. 2 of 4): S18-25, 1995.
8. Murasko D.M., Gold M J., Hessen M.T., Kaye D.: Immune reactivity, morbidity and mortality of elderly humans. Aging: Immunol Inf. Dis. 2: 171-179, 1990.
9. Ligthart G.J., Corberand J X., Geertzen H.G., Meinders A.E., Knock D.L., Hijmans W.: Necessity of the assessment of health status in human immunogerontological studies: evaluation of the SENIEUR protocol. Mech Aging Dev. 55: 89-105, 1990.
10. Ligthart G.J., Corberand J.X., Fournier C., Galanaud P., Hijmans W., Kennes B., Muller-Hermelink H K . Steinmann G.G.: Admission criteria for immunogerontological studies in man: the SENIEUR protocol. Mech. Aging Dev. 28: 47-55, 1984.
11. Olshansky S J., Carnes B.A., Cassell C., In search of Methuselah: estimating the upper limits to human longevity. Science 250: 634-640, 1990.
12. Franceschi C , Monti D., Sansoni P., Cossarizza A.: The immunology of exceptional individuals: the lesson of centenarians Immunol. Today 16: 12-16, 1995.
13. Deviere J., Kennes B., Closset J., De Martelaer V., Neve P.: Immunosenescence - effects of age, sex and health on human-blood mononuclear subpopulations. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 4: 285-293, 1985.
14. Fagiolo U , Cossarizza A., Scala E., Fanales-Belasio E., Ortolani C., Cozzi E., Moniti D., Franceschi C., Paganelli R.: Increased cytokine production in mononuclear cells of healthy elderly. Eur. J. Immunol. 23: 2375-2378, 1993.
15. Ligthart G.J., Van Vlokhoven P.C., Schult H.R.E., Hijmans W.: The expanded null cell compartment in aging: increase in the number of natural killer cells and changes in T-cell and NK-cell subsets in human blood. Immunology 59: 353-357, 1986.
16. Fernandes G., Gupta S.: Natural killing and antibody-dependent cytotoxicity by lymphocyte subpopulations in young and aging humans. J. Clin. Immunol. 1:141-148, 1981
17. Mariotti S., Barbesino G , Caturegli P , Bartalena L., Sansoni P., Fagnoni F., Monti D., Fagiolo U., Franceschi C., Pinchera A.: Complex alterations of thyroid function in healthy centenarians. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 1130-1134, 1993.
18. Mariotti S., Sansoni P., Barbesino G., Monti D., Cossarizza A., Giacomelli D., Passeri G., Fagiolo U., Pinchera A., Franceschi C.: Thyroid and other organ-specific autoantibodies in healthy centenarians. Lancet 339: 1506-1508, 1992.
19. Hessen M T., Kaye D , Murasko D.M.: Heterogeneous effects of exogenous lymphokines on lymphoproliferahon of elderly subjects. Mech. Aging Dev. 58: 61-73, 1991.
20. Chandra R.K.: Nutrition and immunity in the elderly. Nutr. Rev. 50: 367-371, 1992.
21. Pedersen B.K., Tverde N., Christensen L.D., Klarlund K., Kragback S., Halkjr K.J.: Natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood of highly trained and untrained persons Int. J. Sports Med. 10: 129-131, 1989.
22. Lowenthal D T., Kirschner D.A., Scarpace N.T., Pollock M., Graves J.: Effects of exercise on age and disease. Southern Med. J. 87: S5-S12, 1994.
23. Rhind S.G., Shek P.N., Shinkai S., Shephard R.J.: Differential expression of interleukin-2 receptor alpha and beta chains in relation to natural killer subsets and aerobic fitness. Int. J. Sports Med. 15: 911-918, 1994.
24. Khansari D.N., Murgo A J., Faith R.E , Effects of stress on the immune system. Immunol. Today 11: 170-175, 1990.
25. Evans W.J.: Exercise, nutrition and aging. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 11: 725-734, 1995.
26. Mazzeo R.S.: The influence of exercise and aging on immune function Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26: 586-592, 1994.
27. Nieman D.C., Henson D.A.: Role of endurance exercise in immunosenescence. Med. Sci Sports Exerc. 26: 172-181, 1994.
28. Brines R., Hoffman-Goetz L., Pedersen B.K.: Can you exercise to make your immune system fitter? Immunol. Today 17: 252-254, 1996.
29. Seals D.R., Taylor J.A., Ng A V , Esler M.D.: Exercise and aging: autonomic control of the circulation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26: 568-576, 1994
30. Roubenoff R , Rail L.C.: Humoral mediation of changing body composition during aging and chronic inflammation (Review). Nutr Rev. 51: 1-11, 1993.
31. Reznick A.Z., Witt E.H., Silbermann M., Packer L.: The threshold of age in exercise and antioxidants action. EXS. 62: 423-427, 1992.
32. Wang H Y., Bashore T.R., Friedman E.: Exercise reduces age-dependent decrease in platelet protein kinase C activity and translation. J. Gerontol. 50A: M12-M16, 1995.
33. Widdowson E.M.: Physiological processes of aging: are there special nutritional requirements for elderly people? Do McKay's findings apply to humans? (Review). Am. J Clin. Nutr. 55 (Suppl. 6): 1246S-1249S, 1992.
34. Mackinnon L.T.: Current challenges and future expectations in exercise immunology: back to the future. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26: 191-194, 1994.
35. Espersen G T., Elbaek A., Ernst E., Toft E., Kaalund S., Jersild C., Grunnet N.: Effect of physical exercise on cytokines and lymphocyte subpopulations in human peripheral blood. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Immunol. Scand. (APMIS) 98: 395-400, 1990.
36. Nieman D.C., Henson D.A., Gusewitch G , Warren B.J., Dotson R C., Butterworth D E , Nehlsen-Cannarella S. L : Physical activity and immune function in elderly women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25: 823-831, 1993
37. Pahlavani M.A., Cheung T.H., Chesky J.A., Richardson A.: Influence of exercise on the immune function of rats of various ages. J. Appl Physiol. 64: 1997-2001, 1988.
38. Walford R.L., Liu R.K., Gerbase-Delima M., Mathies M., Smith G.S : Long-term dietary restriction and immune function in mice: Response to sheep red blood cells and to mitogenic agents. Mech Ageing Dev 2: 447, 1973-1974.
39. Femandes G.: Nutritional factors: Modulating effects on immune function and aging. Pharmacol. Rev. 36: 123S-129S, 1984.
40. Chell H.J., Wurtman R.J.: Short-term variations in diet composition change the patterns of spontaneous motor activity in rats. Science 213: 676-680, 1981.
41. Femandes G.: Influence of nutrition and autoimmune disease. In: Goidl E A. (Ed.), Aging and the Immune Response: Cellular and Humoral Aspects. Marcel Dekker. New York, 1987, pp. 242-255.
42. Good R.A., Gajjar A.J.: Diet, immunity, and longevity. In: Hutchinson M.L., Munro H.N., (Eds ). Nutrition and Aging. Academic Press. New York, 1986, pp. 235-249.
43. Rous P.: The influence of diet on transplanted and spontaneous mouse tumors. J. Exp. Med. 20: 433-451, 1914.
44. Tannenbaum A., Effects of caloric restriction per se. Cancer Res. 2: 749, 1943.
45. Kritchevsky D., Weber M.M., Klurfeld D.M.: Dietary fat versus caloric content in initiation and promotion of 7.12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced mammary tumorigenesis in rats Cancer Res. 44: 3174-3179, 1984.
46. Rusch H.P., Kline B.E : The effect of exercise on the growth of a mouse tumor. Cancer Res. 4: 116, 1944.
47. Fernandes G., Yunis E.J., Good R.A., Suppression of adenocarcinoma by the immunological consequences of calorie restriction. Nature 263: 504-507, 1976.
48. Enwemeka C.S., Maxwell L.C., Femandes G.: Ultrastructural morphometry of matrical changes induced by exercise and food restriction in the rat calcaneal tendon. Tissue & Cell 24: 248-510, 1992.
49. Maxwell L.C , Enwemeka C.S., Femandes G : Effects of exercise and food restriction on rat skeletal muscles Tissue & Cell 24: 491-498, 1992.
50. Femandes G., Jeng G., Baker D.: Effect of exercise during aging on immune function in mice maintained on a normal and/or restricted caloric intake. Fed. Proc. 44: 2080, 1985.
51. Good R.A., Fernandes G.: Enhancement of immunologic function and resistance to tumor growth in Balb/c mice by exercise. Fed. Proc. 40: 1040, 1981.
52. McCarter R.J.M., Effects of exercise and dietary restriction on energy metabolism and longevity. In: Yu B.P. (Ed ), Modulation of Aging Processes by Dietary Restriction. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1994, pp. 157-174
53. Fernandas G., Rozek M., Troyer D : Reduction of blood pressure and restoration of T-cell immune function in SHR rats by food restriction and/or by treadmill exercise. J. Hypertens. 4. S469-S474, 1986.
54. Kritchevsky D.: Influence of caloric restriction and exercise on tumorigenesis in rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 195: 35-40, 1990
55. Fernandes G., Venkatraman J.T., Flescher E., Laganiere S., Iwai H., Gray P., Prevention in the decline of membrane-associated functions in immune cells during aging by food restriction. In. Fishbein L. (Ed.), Biological Effects of Dietary Restriction. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Germany, 1991, pp. 172-182.
56. Laganiere S., Fernandas G.: Study on the lipid composition of aging Fischer-344 rat lymphoid cells: Effect of long-term calorie restriction. Lipids 26: 472-478, 1991.
57. Venkatraman J.T., Fernandas G.: Modulation of age-related alterations in membrane composition and receptor associated immune functions by food restriction. Mech. Aging Dev. 63: 27-44, 1992.
58. Fernandes A , Venkatraman J.T., Tomar V., Fernandes G.: Effect of treadmill exercise and food restriction on immunity and endocrine hormone levels in rats. FASEB J. 4: 751A, 1990.
59. Evans W.J., Meredith C.N.: Exercise and nutrition in the elderly In: Munro H.N., Danford D.E. (Eds ). Nutrition, Aging and the Elderly Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. 1989
60. Shinkai S., Kohno H., Kimura K., Komura T., Asai H., Inai R., Oka K., Kurokawa Y., Shephard R.: Physical activity and immunosenescence in men. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc 27: 1516-1526, 1995.
61. Keast D., Cameron K., Morton A.R., Exercise and immune response (Review). Sports Med. 5: 248-267, 1988.
62. Nieman D.C., Nehlsen-Cannarella L.: The immune response to exercise. Sem. in Hematol 31: 166-179, 1994.
63. Haahr P M., Pedersen B.K., Fomsgaard A., Tverde N., Diamant M., Klarlund K., Halkjaer-Kristensen J., Bendtzen K.: Effect of physical exercise on in vitro production of interleukin 1, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-2 and interferon-γ. Int J. Sports Med. 12: 223-227, 1991
64. Northoff H., Berg A.: Immunology mediators as parameters of the reaction to strenuous exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 12: S9-S15, 1991.
65. Rivier A , Pine J , Chanez P., Anselme F., Caillaud C , Prifaut C., Godard P., Bousquet J.: Release of cytokines by blood monocytes during strenuous exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 15: 192-198, 1994.
66. Shinkai S., Shore S., Shek P.N., Shephard R.J.: Acute exercise and immune function. Relationship between lymphocyte activity and changes in subset counts. Int. J Sports Med. 13: 452-461, 1992.
67. Fitzgerald L.: Exercise and the immune system. Immunol. Today 9: 337-339, 1988.
68. Gabriel H , Urhausen A., Kindermann W.: Circulating leukocyte and lymphocyte subpopulations before and after intensive endurance exercise to exhaustion. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol 63: 449-457, 1991.
69. Venkatraman J.T , Rowland J.A , Denardin E , Horvath P.J., Pendergast D.R., Influence of the level of dietary lipid intake and maximal exercise on the immune status in runners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., 1997 (in press).
70. Ottaviani E : Some facts and speculation on the origin of the immunoneuroendocrine system and its correlation with aging (Review). Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 663: 331-334, 1992.
71. Luan X., Zhao W , Chandrasekar B., Fernandes G., Calorie restriction modulates lymphocyte subset phenotype and increases apoptosis in MRL/lpr mice. Immunol. Lett. 47: 181-186, 1995.
72. Troyer D.A., Fernandes G.: Nutrition and apoptosis Nutr. Res. 16: 1959-1988, 1996.
73. Craddock C G : Corticosteroid-induced lymphopenia. immunosuppression, and body defense. Ann. Intern. Med. 88: 564-566, 1978.
74. Nieman D.C., Ahle J.C., Henson D.A., Warren B.J., Suttles J , Davis J.M., Buckley K.S , Simandle S., Butterworth D.E., Fagoaga O.P.: Indomethacin does not alter natural killer cell response to 2.5 hours of running. J. Appl. Physiol 79: 748-755, 1995.
75. Nieman D.C., Henson D.A., Sampson C.S , Herring J.L., Sutties J., Conley M., Stone M.H., Butterworth D.E., Davis J.M.: The acute immune response to exhaustive resistance exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 16: 322-328, 1995.
76. Hansen J.B., Wilsgard L., Osterud B.: Biphasic changes in leukocytes induced by strenuous exercise. Eur J. Appl. Physiol. 62: 157-161, 1991.
77. Hoffman-Goetz L., Simpson J.R., Cipp N., Arumugam Y., Houston M.E., Lymphocyte subset responses to repeated submaximal exercise in men. J. Appl. Physiol. 68: 1069-1074, 1990.
78. Smith J A., Telford R.D., Mason I.B., Weidemann M.J.: Exercise, training and neutrophil microbicidal activity. Int. J. Sports Med. 11: 179-187, 1990.
79. Fehr H-G., Lotzerich H., Michna H.: Human macrophage function and physical exercise: phagocytic and histochemical studies. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 58: 613-617, 1989.
80. Nieman D.C., Berk L.S., Simpson-Westerberg M., Arabatzis K., Youngberg S., Tan S.A., Lee J.W., Eby W.C.: Effects of long-endurance running on immune system parameters and lymphocyte function in experienced marathoners. Int. J. Sports Med. 10: 317-323, 1989.
81. Oshida Y., Yamanochi K , Hayamizu S , Sato Y.: Effect of acute physical exercise on lymphocyte subpopulations in trained and untrained subjects. Int. J. Sports Med. 9: 137-140, 1988.
82. Venkatraman J.T., Fernandes G.: Modulation of immune function during aging by dietary restriction In. Yu B.P. (Ed.), Modulation of Aging Processes by Dietary Restriction. CRC Press. Boca Raton, 1994, pp 193-219.
83. Venkatraman J.T , Attwood V.G., Turturro A., Hart R.W., Fernandes G.: Maintenance of virgin T-cells and immune functions by food restriction during aging in long-lived B6D2F1 female mice. Aging: Immunol. Inf. Dis. 5: 13-25, 1994.
84. Fernandes G., Venkatraman J.T. Effect of food restriction on immunoregulation and aging. In: Watson R.R. (Ed.), Handbook of Nutrition in the Aged, ed. 2. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993, pp 331-346.
85. Thoman M.L., Weigle W.O. The cellular and sub-cellular bases of immunosenescence. Adv Immunol. 46: 221-261, 1989.
86. Makinodan T., Chang M.P., Norman D.C., Li S.C.: Vulnerability of T cell lineage to aging. In. Goidl E (Ed.), Aging and Immune Response - Cellular and Humoral Aspects. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987, pp. 27-38.
87. Hirokawa K., Utsuyama M., Kasai M., Kurashima C., Ishijima S., Zeng YX : Understanding the mechanism of the age-change of thymic function to promote T cell differentiation. Immunol. Lett. 40: 269-277, 1994.
88. Cinader B , Doria G., Facchini A., Kurashima C., Thorbecke G.J., Weksler M.E.: Aging and the immune system: Workshop #4. 8th International Congress of Immunology, Budapest, Hungary. Aging: Immunol. Inf. Dis. 4 47-53, 1993.
89. + T cell population from young and old mice. Aging. Immunol. Inf. Dis. 2: 105-109, 1990.
90. + T cell subsets in human peripheral blood. Mech. Aging Dev 63: 57-68, 1992.
91. Russo C., Schwab R., Weksler M.E.: Immune dysregulation associated with aging. Aging: Immunol. Inf. Dis. 2: 211-216, 1990.
92. Kendall A., Hoffman-Goetz L., Houston M., Macneil B., Arumugam Y.: Exercise and blood lymphocyte subset responses: intensity, duration, and subject fitness effects. J. Appl. Physiol. 69: 251-260, 1990.
93. Fernandas G : Chronobiology of immune functions: cellular and humoral aspects. In: Haus E., Touitou Y. (Eds.), Biologic Rhythms in Clinical and Laboratory Medicine. Springer-Verlag. Inc., Berlin, Germany, 1992, pp. 493-503.
94. Weiss C., Kinscherf R., Roth S., Friedmann B., Fischbach T., Reus J , Droge W., Bartsch P.: Lymphocyte subpopulations and concentrations of soluble CD8 and CD4 antigen after anaerobic training Int. J. Sports Med. 16: 117-121, 1995.
95. LaPerriere A., Antoni M.H., Ironson G., Perry A., McCabe P., Klimas N., Helder L., Schneiderman N., Fletcher M.A.: Effects of aerobic exercise training on lymphocyte subpopulations. Int. J. Sports Med. 15 (Suppl. 3): S127-130, 1994.
96. Haq A., al-Hussein K., Lee J., al-Sedairy S.: Changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets associated with marathon running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc 25: 186-190, 1993.
97. Shephard R.J., Shek P.N.: Exercise, aging and immune function. Int. J. Sports Med. 16: 1-6, 1995.
98. Morley J.E : Peptides, behavior and aging. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 34: 52-62, 1986.
99. Hirokawa K.: Autoimmunity and aging. In: Cruse J.M., Lewis R. (Eds.), Autoimmunity: Basic Concepts. Systemic and Selected Organ-Specific Diseases. Concepts Immunopathol 1: 251-288, 1985.
100. Venkatraman J.T., Fernandes G.: Mechanisms of delayed autoimmune disease in B/W mice by omega-3 lipids and food restriction. In: Chandra R.K. (Ed.), Nutritional Immunology. ARTS Biomedical Publications, St. John's, Newfoundland, 1992, pp. 309-323.
101. Currie M.S.: Immunosenescence. Comprehen. Therapy 18: 26-34, 1992.
102. Lewicki R., Tchorzewski H., Denys A., Kowalska M., Golinska A.: Effect of physical exercise on some parameters of immunity in conditioned sportsmen. Int J. Sports Med 8: 309-314, 1987
103. Ortega E., Barriga C., De la Fuente M., Study of the phagocytic process in neutrophils from elite sportswomen. Eur. J. Appl Physiol. 66: 37-42, 1993.
104. Deuster P A., Curiale A.M., Cowan M.L., Finkelman F.D.: Exercise-induced changes in populations of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 20: 276-280, 1988.
105. Fiatarone M A , Morley J.A., Bloom E.T., Renton D , Solomon G.F., Makinodan T.: The effect of exercise on natural killer cell activity in young and old subjects. J. Gerontol 44: M37-M45, 1989.
106. Nieman D.C., Simandle S., Henson D.A., Warren B.J., Suttles J., Davis J M , Buckley K.S., Ahle J C , Butterworth D.E., Fagoaga O R., Nehlsen-Cannarella S.L.: Lymphocyte proliferative response to 2.5 hours of running. Int. J. Sports Med. 16: 404-408, 1995.
107. Nieman D.C., Brendle D., Henson D.A., Suttles J., Cook V.D., Warren B.J,. Butterworth D.E , Fagoaga O.R., Nehlsen-Cannarella S.L.: Immune function in runners versus non-runners. Int. J Sports Med. 16: 329-333, 1995.
108. Cannon J.G., Meydani S N., Fielding R.A., Fiatarone M.A., Meydani M., Farhangmehr F., Orencole S.F., Blumberg J B., Evans W.J.: Acute phase response in exercise II. Associations between vitamin E, cytokines, and muscle proteolysis. Am. J. Physiol. 260: R1235-R1250, 1991
109. Sprenger H., Jacobs C., Nain M., Gressner H., Prinz H , Wesemann W., Gemsa D.: Enhanced release of cytokines interleukin-2 receptors, and neopterin after long-distance running. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 63: 188-195, 1992.
110. Zhou D., Chrest F.J., Adler W , Munster A., Winchurch R.A : Increased production of TGF-beta and IL-6 by aged spleen cells. Immunol. Lett. 36: 7-11, 1993.
111. Shephard P.J., Rhind S., Shek P.N.: Exercise and the immune system. Natural killer cells, interleukins and related responses (Review). Sports Med 18: 340-369, 1994.
112. Baj Z., Kantorski J., Majewska E., Zeman K., Pokooa L., Fornalezyk E., Tohorzewski H., Sulowska Z., Lewicki R.: Immunological status of competitive cyclists before and after the training season. Int. J. Sports Med. 15: 319-324, 1994.
113. Ji L.L.: Exercise and oxidative stress: role of cellular antioxidant systems. Exerc. Sports Rev. 23: 135-166, 1995.
114. Meydani S.M.: Vitamin E requirement in relation to dietary fish oil and oxidative stress in elderly. EXS. 62: 411-418, 1992
115. Ji L.L.: Antioxidant enzyme response to exercise and aging. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25: 225-231, 1993.
116. Singh V N.: A current perspective on nutrition and exercise J. Nutr. 122: 760-765, 1992.
117. Fiatarone M.A., O'Neill E.F., Ryan N.D., Clements K.M., Solares G.R., Nelson M.E., Roberts S.B., Kehayias J.J., Lipsitz L.A., Evans W.J.: Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N. Engl J. Med. 330: 1769-1775, 1994.
118. Verde T.J., Thomas S.G , Moore R.W., Shek P , Shephard R.J . Immune responses and increased training of the elite athlete J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 1494-1499, 1992.
119. Bames C A., Forster J.J., Fleshner M., Ahanotu E.N., Laudenslager M.L., Mazzeo R.S., Maier S.F., Lal H.: Exercise does not modify spatial memory, brain autoimmunity, or antibody response in aged F-344 rats. Neurobiol. Aging 12: 47-53, 1991.
120. Crist D.M., MacKinnon R.F , Thompson H.A., Atterborn H.A., Egan P.A.: Physical exercise increases natural cellular-mediated tumor cytotoxicity in elderly women. Gerontol. 35: 66-71, 1989.
121. De La Fuente M., Ferrandez M.D., Miguel J., Hemanz A.: Changes with aging and physical activity in ascorbic acid content and proliferative response of murine lymphocytes. Mech. Aging Dev 65: 177-186, 1992
122. Nasrullah I , Mazzeo R.S.: Age-related immunosenescence in Fischer 344 rats influence of exercise training. J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 1932-38, 1992.