Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: The clinician's perspective

Journal of Hand Therapy

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 137-150

  Hardy, Maureen A ^a,b   Hardy, S G Patrick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b St Dominic Hospital   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HUMAN; NOCICEPTION; PAIN THRESHOLD; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; SPINAL NERVE; SYMPATHETIC DYSTROPHY;

EID: 0030902434     PISSN: 08941130     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0894-1130(97)80068-3     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Abram S: Increased sympathetic tone associated with TENS. Anesthesiology 45:5:575-577, 1976.
2. Abram S, Asiddao C, Reynolds A: Increased skin temperature during TENS. Anesth Analg 59:22-25, 1980.
3. Aftimos S: Reflex neurovascular dystrophy in children. New Zealand Med J 99:761-763, 1986.
4. Amadio P, Mackinnon S, Merritt W, Brody G, Terzis J: RSD Syndrome: consensus report of an ad hoc committee of the AAHS on the definition of RSD syndrome. Plast Recon Sure 87:371-375, 1991.
5. An HS, Hawthorne KB, Jackson WT: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy and cigarette smoking. J Hand Surg 13A:470-472, 1988.
6. Appenzeller O: Temperature Regulation: In The Autonomic Nervous System, 3rd ed. New York, Elsevier, 1982.
7. Appenzeller O: Galen's treatise on sympathetic nervous system: In The Autonomic Nervous System, 4th ed. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
8. Arnold JM, Teasell R, MacLeod A et al: Increased venous alpha-adrenoceptor responsiveness in patients with RSD. Ann Intern Med 118:619-621, 1993.
9. Barber L: Occupational Therapy for the treatment of RSD and posttraumatic hypersensitivity in the injured hand: In Fredricks S, Brody G (eds.): Symposium on the neurologic aspects of plastic surgery. Philadelphia, CV Mosby, 1978.
10. Bej M, Schwartzman R: Abnormalities of cutaneous blood flow regulation in patients with RSD as measured by laser doppler fluxmetry. Arch Neurol 48:912-915, 1991.
11. Bennett G: The role of the sympathetic nervous system in painful peripheral neuropathy. Pain 45:221-223, 1991.
12. Bernstein B, Singsen B, Kent J, et al: Reflex neurovascular dystrophy in childhood. J Pediatr 93:211-213, 1978.
13. Bircher A, De Boer E, Agner T: Guidelines for measurement of cutaneous blood flow by laser doppler flowmetry. Contact Dermatitis 28:1-8, 1993.
14. Blacker HM: Volitional sympathetic control. Anesth Analg 59:785-788, 1980.
15. Blair SJ: Role of the neuropeptides in the pathogenesis of RSD (abstract). Brussels International Symposium on RSD, 1996.
16. Bruehl S, Carlson C: Predisposing psychological factors in the development of RSD. Clin J Pain 8:287-299, 1992.
17. Bryan A, Klenerman L, Bowsher D: The diagnosis of RSD using an algometer. J Bone Joint Surg 73B:644-646, 1991.
18. Bunnell S: Trophic and vascular conditions: In Boyes J (ed.): Bunnell's Surgery of the Hand. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1978.
19. Cameron H, Park Y, Kreston M: RSD following total knee replacement. Contem Orthop 29:279-281, 1994.
20. Carlson L, Watson K: Treatment of RSD using the stress-loading program. J Hand Ther 3:149-154, 1988.
21. Carron H, Weller R: Treatment of post-traumatic sympathetic dystrophy. Adv Neurol 4:485-490, 1974.
22. Chahl L, Ladd R: Local edema and general excitation of cutaneous sensory receptors produced by electrical stimulation of the saphenous nerve in the rat. Pain 2:25-34, 1976.
23. Chapman L, Ramos A, Goodell H, Wolff H: Neurohumoral features of afferent fibers in man. Arch Neurol 4:617-650, 1961.
24. Christensen K, Jensen E, Noer I: The reflex dystrophy syndrome response to treatment with systemic corticosteroids. ACTA Chir Scand 148:653-655, 1982.
25. Chuinard R, Dabezies E, Gould J, Murphy G: Intravenous reserpine for treatment of RSD. South Med J 74:1481-1484, 1981.
26. Cline M, Ochoa J, Torebjork E: Chronic hyperalgesia and skin warming caused by sensitized C nociceptors. Brain 112:621-647, 1989.
27. Cook E, Glick E, Bowcock S, Smith R: RSD (Algoneurodystrophy): temperature studies in the upper limb. Br J Rheum 28:399-403, 1989.
28. Cooke E, Ward C: Vicious circles in RSD - a hypothesis: discussion paper. J Royal Soc Med 83:96-99, 1990.
29. Cronin K, Kirsner R: Diagnosis of RSD: use of the skin potential response. Anesthesiology 37:484-852, 1982.
30. Davidoff G, Morey K, Amann M: Pain measurements in RSD syndrome. Pain 32:27-34, 1988.
31. Doury P: Natural History of RSD (abstract). Brussels International Symposium on RSD, 1996.
32. Drory V: Sympathetic skin response: In Korczyn A (ed.): Handbook of ANS Dysfunction. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1995.
33. Drummond P, Finch P, Smythe G: RSD: the significance of differing plasma catecholamine concentrations in affected and unaffected limbs. Brain 114:2025-2036, 1991.
34. Ebersold M, Lawse E, Albers J: Measurements of autonomic function before, during and after TENS in patients with chronic pain and in control subjects. Mayo Clin Proc 52:228-232, 1977.
35. Ewing O, Irving J, Kerr F, Wildsmith J, Clarke B: Cardiovascular responses to sustained handgrip in normal subjects and in patients with diabetes mellitus: a test of autonomic function. Clin Sci Molec Med 46:295-306, 1974.
36. Fealy M, Ladd A: RSD: early diagnosis and active treatment. J Musculoskel Med 13:29-36, 1996.
37. Ferrell W, Russell N: Extravasastion in the knee induced by antidromic stimulation of articular C fiber afferents of the anaesthetized cat. J Physiol 379:407-416, 1986.
38. Field J, Monk C, Atkins R: Objective improvements in algodystrophy following regional intravenous guanethidine. J Hand Surg 18B:339-342, 1993.
39. Gibbons J, Wilson P: RSD score: criteria for the diagnosis of RSD and causalgia. Clin J Pain 8:260-263, 1992.
40. Gracely R, Lynch S, Bennett G: Ischemic block of large fiber function in RSD: a paradox. Soc Neurosci Abstracts 16: 1280, 1990.
41. Grundberg A: RSD: treatment with long-acting intramuscular corticosteroids. J Hand Surg 21A:667-670, 1996.
42. Grunert B, Devine C, Sanger J et al: Thermal self-regulation for pain control in RSD syndrome. J Hand Surg 15A:615-618, 1990.
43. Haddox JD: Comparison of psychometric data in RSD and radiculopathy. Reg Anesth 13:27, 1988.
44. Hannington-Kiff F: Pharmacological target block in hand surgery and rehabilitation. J Hand Surg 9B:29-36, 1984.
45. Hardy M, Moran C, Merritt W: Desensitization of the traumatized hand. VA Med J 109:134-137, 1982.
46. Hardy M, Merritt W: Psychological evaluation and pain assessment in patients with RSD. J Hand Ther 1:155-164, 1988.
47. Heerschap A, Hollander J, Reynen H, Goris R: Metabolic changes in RSD: a 31PNMR spectroscopy study. Muscle and Nerve 16:367-373, 1993.
48. Herbert P: RSD: a chronic pain dilemma for physical therapy management. World Confederation for PT Congress, Washington DC, 1995.
49. Hobelman C, Dellon A: Use of prolonged sympathetic blockade as an adjunct to surgery in the patient with sympathetic maintained pain. Microsurgery 10:151-153, 1989.
50. Hochreiter N, Jewell M, Barber L, Browne P: Effect of vibration on tactile sensitivity. Phys Ther 63:934-937, 1983.
51. Hoffert M, Greenberg R, Wolskee P, Gracely R et al: Abnormal and collateral innervations of sympathetic and peripheral sensory fields associated with causalgia. Pain 20: 1-12, 1984.
52. Hu S, Zhu J: Sympathetic facilitation of sustained discharges of polymocal nociceptors. Pain 38:85-90, 1989.
53. Iadarola M, Max M, Berman K, et al: Unilateral decrease in thalamic activity observed with positron emission tomography in patients with chronic neuropathic pain. Pain 63:55-64, 1995.
54. Janig W, Schmidt R: RSD. Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. Symposium. New York, VCH Publishers, 1992.
55. Janig W: Comments on RSD: a disease of medical understanding. Clin J Pain 8:367-369, 1992.
56. Janig W, Stanton-Hicks M: RSD: a reappraisal: In Progress in Pain Research and Management, vol 6. Seattle, IASP Press, 1996.
57. Jarvilehto T, Hamalainen H, Kekoni J: Mechanoreceptive unit activity in human skin nerves correlated with touch and vibratory sensations: In Zotterman Y (ed): Sensory Function of the Skin in Primates, vol. 27. New York, Pergamon Press, 1976.
58. Johnson J, Cavallaro D: Post-traumatic RSD. J Am Pod Assoc 67:870-873, 1977.
59. Kaada B: Vasodilation induced by TENS in peripheral ischemia (Raynaud's phenomenon and Diabetic Polyneuropathy). Eur Heart J 3:303-314, 1982.
60. Karstetter K, Sherman R: Use of thermography for initial detection of early RSD. J Am Pod Med Assoc 81:198-205, 1991.
61. Kasdan M, Amadio P, Bowers W: Pain: In Technical Tips for Hand Surgery. Philadelphia, Hanley & Belfus, 1994.
62. Keen P, Harmar A, Spears F, Winter E: Biosynthesis, axonal transport and turnover of neuronal substance P. CIBA Foundation Symposium 91:145-160, 1982.
63. Kishimoto S, Maruo M, Yasuno H et al: The regeneration of cholinesterase-positive structures in the process of burn wound healing in the skin of the guinea pig. Burns 9: 121-127, 1982.
64. Koman L, Poehung G: RSD: In Gelberman RH (ed.): Operative Nerve Repair and Rehabilitation. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1991.
65. Koman L, Nunley J, Goldner J, et al: Isolated cold stress testing in the assessment of symptoms in the upper extremity: preliminary communication. J Hand Surg 9A: 305-313, 1984.
66. Koman L, Smith B, Smith T: Stress testing in the evaluation of upper extremity perfusion. Hand Clin North Am 9:59-83, 1993.
67. Korczyn A: Handbook of Autonomic Nervous System Dysfunction. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1995.
68. Kozin F, McCarty D, Sims J, Genant H: The RSD syndrome I. Clinical and histological studies: evidence of bilaterality response to corticosteroids and articular involvement. Am J Med 60:321-331, 1976.
69. Kozin F, Genant H, Bekerman C, McCarty D: The RSD syndrome II. Roentgenographic and scintigraphic evidence of bilaterality and of periarticular accentuation. Am J Med 60:332-338, 1976.
70. Krassioukov A, Weaver L: Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system. PMR 10:1-14, 1996.
71. Kurvers H, Jacobs M, Beuk R: The influence of local skin heating and reactive hyperaemia on skin blood flow abnormalities in patients with RSD. Eur J Clin Invest 2S: 346-352, 1995.
72. Kurvers H, Jacobs M, Beuk R: RSD: evolution of microcirculatory disturbances in time. Pain 60:333-340, 1995.
73. LaMotte R, Shain C, Simone D, Tsai E: Neurogenic hyperalgesia: psychophysical studies of underlying mechanisms. J Neurophys 66:190-211, 1991.
74. Lankford L: RSD: In Hunter J, Schneider L, Mackin E, Callahan A (eds.): Rehabilitation of the Hand, 4th ed. Philadelphia, CV Mosby, 1990.
75. Leandri M, Brunetti O, Parodi C: Telethermographic findings after TENS. Phys Ther 66:210-213, 1986.
76. Lembeck F, Gamse R: Substance P in peripheral sensory processes. CIBA Foundation Symposium 91:35-54, 1982.
77. Levine J, Dardick S, Basbaum A, Scipios E: Reflex neurogenic inflammation I. Contribution of the peripheral nervous system to spatially remote inflammatory responses that follow injury. J Neurosci 5:1380-1386, 1985.
78. Levine J, Basbaum A: The peripheral nervous system and the inflammatory process. Pain Suppl. 4:S109, 1987.
79. Linson A, Leffert R, Todd D: The treatment of upper extremity RSD with prolonged continuous stellate ganglion blockade. J Hand Surg 8:153-159, 1983.
80. Loewenstein W, Altamirano-Orrego R: Enhancement of activity in a pacinian corpuscle by sympathomimetic agents. Nature 178:1292-1293, 1956.
81. Loh L, Nathan P: Painful peripheral states and sympathetic blocks. J Neuro, Neurosurg Psych 41:664-671, 1978.
82. Low P, Caskey P, Tuck R, Fealey R, Dyck P: Quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test in normal and neuropathic subjects. Ann Neurol 14:573-580, 1983.
83. Low P, Neumann C, Dyck P, Fealey R, Tuck R: Evaluation of skin vasomotor reflexes by using laser doppler velocity. Mayo Clin Proc 58:583-592, 1983.
84. Low P, Pfeifer M: Standardization of clinical tests for practice and clinical trials: In Low P (ed.): Clinical Autonomic Disorders. Evaluation and Management. Boston, Little Brown, 1993.
85. Lundberg T: Long term results of vibratory stimulation as a pain relieving measure for chronic pain. Pain 20:13-23, 1984.
86. Lundberg T, Nordemar R, Ottoson D: Pain alleviation by vibratory stimulation. Pain 20:25-44, 1984.
87. Lunter M, Van Albada-Kuipers G: RSD syndrome of one finger. Clin Rheum 9:542-544, 1990.
88. Lynch M: Psychological aspects of RSD: a review of the adult and paediatric literature. Pain 49:337-347, 1992.
89. Malament I, Glick J: Sudeck's atrophy. J Am Pod Assoc 73: 362-368, 1983.
90. Marsden C, Obeso J, Traub M et al: Muscle spasms associated with Sudeck's atrophy after injury. BMJ 288:173-176, 1984.
91. McLeskey C, Balestrier F, Weeks D: Sympathetic Dystrophies: In Warfield C (ed.): Principles and Practice of Pain Management. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
92. Melzack R: The McGill pain questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain 1:277-299, 1975.
93. Meyer R, Raja S, Treede R, et al: Neural Mechanisms of sympathetically maintained pain: In Janig W. Schmidt R (eds.): RSD. Pathological Mechanisms and Clinical Implications. New York, VCH, 1992.
94. Moberg E: The shoulder-hand-finger syndrome. Surg Clin North Am 40:367-373, 1960.
95. Nakamura-Craig M, Smith T: Substance P and peripheral inflammatory hyperalgesia. Pain 38:91-98, 1989.
96. Nakamura M, Ferreira S: A peripheral sympathetic component in inflammatory hyperalgesia. Euro J Pharm 135: 145-153, 1987.
97. Nance P, Hoy C: Assessment of the Autonomic Nervous System. PMR 10:15-35, 1996.
98. Nasu Y: Changes of the skin temperature caused by local vibratory stimulation in normals and patients with vibratory syndrome. Yongo ACTA Medica 21:83-99, 1977.
99. Nathan PW: Improvement in cutaneous sensibility associated with relief of pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 23: 202-206, 1960.
100. Ochoa J: RSD: a disease of medical understanding. Clin J Pain 8:363-366, 1992.
101. Ochoa J, Yarnitsky D: The triple cold syndrome: cold hyperalgesia, cold hypoaesthesia and cold skin in peripheral nerve disease. Brain 117:185-197, 1994.
102. Omer G: Symposium on pain: evaluation and treatment of the painful upper extremity. J Hand Surg 9B:20-23, 1984.
103. Omer G: The RSD and other pain syndromes. In Fredricks S, Brody G (eds.): Symposium on the Neurologic Aspects of Plastic Surgery, vol. 17. St. Louis, Mosby, 1978.
104. Owens S, Atkinson E, Lees D: Thermographic evidence of reduced sympathetic tone associated with TENS. Anesthesiology 50:62-65, 1979.
105. Oyen W, Arntzi E, Claessens A et al: RSD of the hand: an excessive inflammatory response. Pain 55:151-157, 1993.
106. Pak T, Martin G, Magness J: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Minn Med 53:507-512, 1970.
107. Paulson R: RSD in a teenaged girl. Postgrad Med 81:66-67, 1987.
108. Pollock F, Koman L, Smith B, Poehling G: Patterns of microvascular response associated with RSD of the wrist and hand. J Hand Surg 18A:847-852, 1993.
109. Price D, Long S, Huitt C: Sensory testing of pathophysiological mechanisms of pain in patients with RSD. Pain 49: 163-173, 1992.
110. Procacci P, Francini F, Zoppi M, Maresca M: Cutaneous pain threshold changes after sympathetic block in reflex dystrophies. Pain 1:167-175, 1975.
111. Procacci P, Francini F, Maresca M: Skin potential and EMG changes induced by cutaneous electrical stimulation. Appl Neurophysiol 42:125-134, 1979.
112. Pyykko I, Hyvgrinen J: Vibration induced changes of sympathetic vasomotor tone. ACTA Chir Scand (suppl) 465:23, 1976.
113. Richlin D, Carron H, Rowlingson J et al: RSD: successful treatment by TENS. J Pediatr July; 84-86, 1978.
114. Roberts WJ: A hypothesis on the physiological basis for causalgia and related pains. Pain 24:297-311, 1986.
115. Roberts W, Foglesong M: A neuronal basis for sympathetically maintained pain. Thermology 2:2-6, 1986.
116. Roberts W, Foglesong M: Identification of afferents contributing to sympathetically evoked activity in wide-dynamic-range neurons. Pain 34:305-314, 1988.
117. Roche P, Gijsbers K, Belch J, Forbes C: Modification of induced ischaemic pain by TENS. Pain 20:45-52, 1984.
118. Russell W, Spalding J: Treatment of painful amputation stumps. Br Med J 2:68-73, 1950.
119. Saburo K, Hiroshi K, Toshihiro M: The role of sympathetic catecholaminergic nerves in wound healing. Burns 9:135-141, 1982.
120. Sato Y, Schaible H: Discharge characteristics of sympathetic efferents to the knee joint of the cat. J Autonomic Nerv Syst 19:95-103, 1987.
121. Schuind F, Schoutens A, Driessens M, Burny F: Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy (abstract). Brussels International Upper Extremity Symposium. Brussels, Arco, 1996.
122. Schutzer S, Gossling H: The treatment of RSD syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg 66A:625-629, 1984.
123. Schwartzman R, Kerrigan J: The movement disorder of RSD. Neurology 40:57-61, 1990.
124. Schwartzman R: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Current Ther Neurol Dis 3:66-69, 1990.
125. Seltzer S, Seltzer J, Lessin J, Woo R: Sympathetic block does not improve tactile sensitivity in patients with RSD. Anesthesiology 69:A714, 1988.
126. Schumacker H: A personal overview of causalgia and other reflex dystrophies. Ann Surg 201:278-289, 1985.
127. Stallworth J, Horne J, Plonk G: A noninvasive method to assess sympathetic activity. Am Surg 47:333-337, 1981.
128. Stanton-Hicks M: Pain and the Sympathetic Nervous System. Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990.
129. Sternbach R, Murphy R, Timmermans G: Measuring the severity of clinical pain. Adv Neurol 4:281-288, 1974.
130. Stilz R, Carron H, Sanders D: RSD in a 6-year-old: successful treatment by TENS. Anesth Analg 56:438-443, 1977.
131. Subbarao J, Blair S: RSD Syndrome. Phys Med Rehabil State-of-the-Art Reviews 9:31-50, 1995.
132. Subbarao J, Stillwell G: RSD syndrome of upper extremity: analysis of total outcome of management of 125 cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 62:549-554, 1981.
133. Tillman P, Stradhouders A, Jap P, Goris R: Histopathological findings in skeletal muscle tissue of patients suffering from RSD. Micron Microscop ACTA 21:271-272, 1990.
134. Toomey TC: Stability of self report methods of improvement in chronic pain. Pain 12:273-283, 1982.
135. Torebjork E, Wahren L, Wallin G, et al: Noradrenaline-evoked pain in neuralgia. Pain 63:11-20, 1995.
136. Van Houdenhove B, Vasquez G, Oneghena P et al: Etiopathogenesis of RSD: a review and biopsychosocial hypothesis. Clin J Pain 8:300-306, 1992.
137. Veldman P, Reynen H, Arntz I, Goris R: Signs and symptoms of RSD: prospective study of 829 patients. Lancet 342: 1012-1016, 1993.
138. Wall P: The painful consequences of peripheral injury. J Hand Surg 9B:37-39, 1984.
139. Wallin B: Intraneural recordings of normal and abnormal sympathetic activity in man. In Bannister R (ed.): A Textbook of Clinical Disorders of ANS. New York, Oxford Medical Publishers, 1988.
140. Wallin B, Torebjorke E, Hallin R: Preliminary observations on the pathophysiology of hyperalgesia in the causalgic pain syndrome: In Zotterman Y (ed.): Sensory Function of the Skin. New York, Pergamon Press, 1976.
141. Walsh M: Therapists' management of RSD: In Hunter J, Mackin E, Callahan A (eds.): Rehabilitation of the Hand, 4th ed. Philadelphia, CV Mosby, 1995.
142. Watson H, Carlson L: Treatment of RSD of the hand with an active "stress loading" program. J Hand Surg 12A: 779-785, 1987.
143. Westerman R, Carr R, Delaney C et al: The role of skin nociceptive afferent nerves in blister healing. Clin Exper Neurol 30:39-60, 1993.
144. Wilgis S: Evaluation and treatment of chronic digital ischemia. Ann Surg 193:693-698, 1981.
145. Wollersheim H, Reyenga J, Thien T: Laser doppler velocimetry of finger tips during heat provocation in normals and in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 48:91-95, 1988.
146. Wong R, Jette D: Changes in sympathetic tone associated with different forms of TENS in healthy subjects. Phys Ther, 64:478-482, 1984.
147. Woolf C: Evidence for a central component of post-injury pain hypersensitivity. Nature 306:686-688, 1983.
148. Yarnitsky D, Ochoa L: Release of cold-induced burning pain by block of cold-specific afferent input. Brain 113: 893-902, 1990.
149. Yarnitsky D, Ochoa J: Differential effect of compression-ischemia block on warm sensation and heat induced pain. Brain 114:907-913, 1991.
150. Yerxa E, Barber L, Diaz O, Black W, Azen S: Development of a hand sensitivity test for the hypersensitive hand. Am J Occup Ther 37:176-181, 1983.
151. Yokota T, Furukawa T, Tsukagoshi H: Motor paresis improved by sympathetic block: a motor form of RSD. Arch Neurol 46:683-687, 1989.
152. Zucchini M, Alberti G, Moretti P: Algodystrophy and related psychological features. Funct Neurol 4:153-156, 1989.
153. McAllister R, Urban L, Dray A, Smith P: Comparison of the sensory threshold in healthy human volunteers with the sensory nerve response of the rat in vitro hindlimb skin and saphenous nerve preparation on cutaneous electrical stimulation. J Hand Surg (Br) 20B:437-443, 1995.