Interactions of physical training and heat acclimation. The thermophysiology of exercising in a hot climate

Sports Medicine

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 173-210

  Aoyagi, Yukitoshi ^a   McLellan, Tom M ^a,b   Shephard, Roy J ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b DEF AND CIV INST OF ENVIRON MED   (Canada)

^c BROCK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BLOOD VOLUME; BODY TEMPERATURE; BODY WATER; CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; FITNESS; HEAT ACCLIMATIZATION; HEAT STRESS; HUMAN; HYDRATION; MENSTRUAL CYCLE; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PHYSICAL TOLERANCE; REST; REVIEW; SKIN BLOOD FLOW; SLEEP; SWEATING; TRAINING;

EID: 0030896579     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00007256-199723030-00004     Document Type: Review

References (311)

1. Armstrong LE, Pandolf KB. Physical training, cardiorespiratory physical fitness and exercise-heat tolerance. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 199-226
2. Gagge AP, Nishi Y. Heat exchange between human skin surface and thermal environment. In: Lee DHK, editor. Handbook of physiology: reactions to environmental agents. Bethesda: American Physiological Society, 1983: 69-92
3. Gisolfi CV, Wenger CB. Temperature regulation during exercise: old concepts, new ideas. In: Terjung RL, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. New York: Macmillan, 1984; 12: 339-72
4. Goldman RF. Heat stress in industrial protective encapsulating garments. In: Levine SP, Martin WF, editors. Protecting personnel at hazardous waste sites. Boston: Butterworth, 1985: 215-66
5. Gonzalez RR. Biophysics of heat transfer and clothing considerations. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 45-95
6. Parsons KC. Human thermal environments: the effects of hot, moderate and cold environments on human health, comfort and performance - the principles and the practice. London: Taylor & Francis, 1993
7. Rowell LB. Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. Physiol Rev 1974; 54: 75-159
8. Santee WR, Gonzalez RR. Characteristics of the thermal environment. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 1-43
9. Sawka MN. Body fluid responses and hypohydration during exercise-heat stress. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 227-66
10. Sawka MN, Wenger CB. Physiological responses to acute exercise-heat stress. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 97-151
11. Wenger CB. Human heat acclimatization. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 153-97
12. Aoyagi Y. Endurance training, heat acclimation, and protective clothing: the thermophysiology of exercising in a hot climate [dissertation]. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1996
13. Aoyagi Y, McLellan TM, Shephard RJ. Effects of training and acclimation on heat tolerance in exercising men wearing protective clothing. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 68: 234-45
14. Aoyagi Y, McLellan TM, Shephard RJ. Effects of 6 versus 12 days of heat acclimation on heat tolerance in lightly exercising men wearing protective clothing. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 71: 187-96
15. Aoyagi Y, McLellan TM, Shephard RJ. Determination of body heat storage in clothing: calorimetry versus thermometry. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 71: 197-206
16. Aoyagi Y, McLellan TM, Shephard RJ. Determination of body heat storage: how to select the weighting of rectal and skin temperatures for clothed subjects. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1996; 68: 325-36
17. Aoyagi Y, McLellan TM, Shephard RJ. Residual analysis in the determination of factors affecting the estimates of body heat storage in clothed subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 287-98
18. Shephard RJ. Exercise physiology. Toronto: Decker, 1987
19. Du Bois D, Du Bois EF. Clinical calorimetry: a formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 1916; 17: 863-71
20. Morgan WP. Hyperventilation syndrome: a review. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1983; 44: 685-9
21. Shephard RJ. Learning, habituation, and training. Int Z Angew Physiol 1969; 28: 38-48
22. Senay LC, Kok R. Effects of training and heat acclimatization on blood plasma contents of exercising men. J Appl Physiol 1977; 53: 591-9
23. Shvartz E, Shapiro Y, Magazanik A, et al. Heat acclimation, physical fitness, and responses to exercise in temperate and hot environments. J Appl Physiol 1977; 43: 678-83
24. Gisolfi CV. Work-heat tolerance derived from interval training. J Appl Physiol 1973; 35: 349-54
25. Houmard JA, Costill DL, Davis JA, et al. The influence of exercise intensity on heat acclimation in trained subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 615-20
26. Sawka MN, Pandolf KB, Avellini BA, et al. Does heat acclimation lower the rate of metabolism elicited by muscular exercise? Aviat Space Environ Med 1983; 54: 27-31
27. Young AJ, Sawka MN, Levine L, et al. Skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise is influenced by heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1929-35
28. King DS, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Muscle metabolism during exercise in the heat in unacclimatized and acclimatized humans. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1350-4
29. Kirwan JP, Costill DL, Kuipers H, et al. Substrate utilization in leg muscle of men alter heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63: 31-5
30. Wyndham CH, Rogers GG, Senay LC, et al. Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: cardiovascular adjustments. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40: 779-85
31. Kakitsuba N, Gaul K, Michna H, et al. Dynamic moisture permeation through clothing. Aviat Space Environ Med 1988; 59: 49-53
32. Sullivan PJ, Mekjavi IB. Temperature and humidity within the clothing microenvironment. Avial Space Environ Med 1992; 63: 186-92
33. Duggan A. Energy cost of stepping in protective clothing ensembles. Ergonomics 1988; 31: 3-11
34. Teitlebaum A, Goldman RF. Increased energy cost with multiple clothing layers. J Appl Physiol 1972; 32: 743-4
35. Francesconi RP. Endocrinological responses to exercise in stressful environments. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1988; 16: 255-84
36. Granner DK. Thyroid hormones. In: Murray RK, Granner DK, Mayes PA, et al., editors. Harper's biochemistry. 21st ed. Norwalk: Appleton & Lange, 1988: 496-501
37. 4-induced increase in rat soleus muscle mitochondria. Am J Physiol 1979; 236: C132-8
38. Sridharan K, Sawhney RC, Mathew L, et al. Thyroid gland function during cross adaptation to heat and cold in man. Int J Biometeor 1986; 30: 223-30
39. Fox EL, Mathews DK. The physiological basis of physical education and athletics. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1981
40. Shephard RJ. The oxygen cost of breathing during vigorous exercise. Q J Exp Physiol 1966; 51: 336-50
41. Rodwell VW. Enzymes: kinetics. In: Murray RK, Granner DK, Mayes PA, et al., editors, Harper's biochemistry. 21st ed. Norwalk: Appleton & Lange, 1988: 61-74
42. Zachariassen KE. Hypothermia and cellular physiology. Arctic Med Res 1991; 50 Suppl. 6: 13-7
43. Brooks GA, Hittelman KJ, Faulkner JA, et al. Temperature, skeletal muscle mitochondrial functions, and oxygen debt. Am J Physiol 1971; 220: 1053-9
44. Brooks GA, Hittelman KJ, Faulkner JA, et al. Tissue temperatures and whole-animal oxygen consumption after exercise. Am J Physiol 1971; 221: 427-31
45. Shvartz E, Saar E, Meyerstein N, et al. Heat acclimatization while wearing vapour-barrier clothing. Aerosp Med 1973; 44: 609-12
46. Nadel ER, Pandolf KB, Roberts MF, et al. Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37: 515-20
47. Roberts MF, Wenger CB, Stolwijk JAJ, et al. Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1977; 43: 133-7
48. Dimri GP, Malhotra MS, Sen Gupta J, et al. Alterations in aerobic-anaerobic proportions of metabolism during work in heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 1980; 45: 43-50
49. Nielsen B, Savard G, Richter EA, et al. Muscle blood flow and muscle metabolism during exercise and heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 1040-6
50. Savard GK, Nielsen B, Laszczynska J, et al. Muscle blood flow is not reduced in humans during moderate exercise and heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 649-57
51. Smolander J, Kolari P, Korhonen O, et al. Aerobic and anaerobic responses to incremental exercise in a thermoneutral and a hot dry environment. Acta Physiol Scand 1986; 128: 15-21
52. Young AJ. Energy substrate utilization during exercise in extreme environments. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1990; 18: 65-117
53. Bylund A-C, Bjurö T, Cederblad G, et al. Physical training in man: skeletal muscle metabolism in relation to muscle morphology and running ability. Eur J Appl Physiol 1977; 36: 151-69
54. Jansson H, Kaijser L. Substrate utilization and enzymes in skeletal muscle of extremely endurance-trained men. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 999-1005
55. Karlsson J, Nordesjö L-O, Saltin B. Muscle glycogen utilization during exercise after physical training. Acta Physiol Scand 1974; 90: 210-7
56. Shephard RJ. Biochemistry of physical activity. Springfield: Thomas, 1984
57. Gaesser GA, Brooks GA. Muscular efficiency during steady-rate exercise: effects of speed and work rate. J Appl Physiol 1975; 38: 1132-9
58. Whipp BJ, Wasserman K. Efficiency of muscular work. J Appl Physiol 1969; 26: 644-8
59. Sawka MN, Petrofsky JS, Phillips CA. Energy cost of submaximal isometric contractions in cat fast and slow twitch muscles. Pflugers Arch 1981; 390: 164-8
60. Saltin B, Gagge AP, Stolwijk JAJ. Muscle temperature during submaximal exercise in man. J Appl Physiol 1968; 25: 679-88
61. Blomstrand E, Essén-Gustavsson B. Influence of reduced muscle temperature on metabolism in type I and type II human muscle fibres during intensive exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1987; 131: 569-74
62. Kruk B, Pekkarinen H, Harri M, et al. Thermoregulatory responses to exercise at low ambient temperature performed after precooling or preheating procedures. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 59: 416-20
63. Fogelholm M. Effects of bodyweight reduction on sports performance. Sports Med 1994; 18: 249-67
64. Grimby L, Hannerz J. Disturbances in voluntary recruitment order of low and high frequency motor units on blockades of proprioceptive afferent activity. Acta Physiol Scand 1976; 96: 207-16
65. Drinkwater BL, Denton JE, Kupprat IC, et al. Aerobic power as a factor in women's response to work in hot environments. J Appl Physiol 1976; 41: 815-21
66. Greenleaf JE, Castle BL, Ruff WK. Maximal oxygen uptake, sweating and tolerance to exercise in the heat. Int J Biometeor 1972; 16: 375-87
67. Davies CTM. Influence of skin temperature on sweating and aerobic performance during severe work. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47: 770-7
68. Davies CTM. Thermoregulation during exercise in relation to sex and age. Eur J Appl Physiol 1979; 42: 71-9
69. Davies CTM, Brotherhood JR, Zeidifard E. Temperature regulation during severe exercise with some observations on effects of skin wetting. J Appl Physiol 1976; 41: 772-6
70. Åstrand P-O, Rodahl K. Textbook of work physiology: physiological hases of exercise. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986
71. Sawka MN, Dennis RC, Gonzalez RR, et al. Influence of polycythemia on blood volume and thermoregulation during exercise-heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 912-8
72. Avellini BA, Shapiro Y, Fortney SM, et al. Effects on heat tolerance of physical training in water and on land. J Appl Physiol 1982; 53: 1291-8
73. Gisolfi CV, Cohen JS. Relationships among training, heat acclimation, and heat tolerance in men and women: the controversy revisited. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 56-9
74. Pandolf KB. Effects of physical training and cardiorespiratory physical fitness on exercise-heat tolerance: recent observations. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 60-5
75. Pandolf KB, Cadarette BS, Sawka MN, et al. Thermoregulatory responses of middle-aged and young men during dry-heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 65-71
76. Gisolfi CV, Wilson NC, Claxton B. Work-heat tolerance of distance runners. In: Milvy P, editor. The marathon: physiological, medical, epidemiological, and psychological studies. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences, 1977: 139-50
77. Borg GAV. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 377-81
78. Kamon E, Pandolf K, Cafarelli E. The relationship between perceptual information and physiological responses to exercise in the heat. J Hum Ergol 1974; 3: 45-54
79. Sargeant AJ, Davies CTM. Perceived exertion during rhythmic exercise involving different muscle masses. J Hum Ergol 1973; 2: 3-11
80. Hollies NRS. Psychological scaling in comfort assessment. In: Hollies NRS, Goldman RF, editors. Clothing comfort: interaction of thermal, ventilation, construction and assessment factors [proceedings of the Fibre Society, Inc. Comfort Symposium]. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science, 1977: 107-20
81. Carton RL, Rhodes EC. A critical review of the literature on ratings scales for perceived exertion. Sports Med 1985; 2(3): 198-222
82. Follenius M, Brandenberger G, Oyono S, et al. Cortisol as a sensitive index of heat-intolerance. Physiol Behav 1982; 29: 509-13
83. Shephard RJ, Vandewalle H, Bouhlel VGE, et al. Respiratory, muscular, and overall perceptions of effort: the influence of hypoxia and muscle mass. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 556-67
84. Knuttgen HG, Nordesjö L-O, Ollander B, et al. Physical conditioning through interval training with young male adults. Med Sci Sports 1973; 5: 220-6
85. Lewis S, Thompson P, Areskog N-H, et al. Transfer effects of endurance training to exercise with untrained limbs. Eur J Appl Physiol 1980; 44: 25-34
86. Pandolf KB, Burse RL, Goldman RF. Differentiated ratings of perceived exertion during physical conditioning of older individuals using leg-weight loading. Percept Mot Skills 1975; 40: 563-74
87. Sidney KH, Shephard RJ. Perception of exertion in the elderly, effects of aging, mode of exercise and physical training. Percept Mot Skills 1977; 44: 999-1010
88. Fanger PO. Thermal comfort: analysis and applications in environmental engineering. Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press, 1970
89. Niinimaa V, Cole P, Mintz S, et al. The switching point from nasal to oronasal breathing. Respir Physiol 1980; 42: 61-71
90. Livingstone SD, Nolan RW, Cain JB, et al. Effect of working in hot environments on respiratory air temperatures. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 98-101
91. Nishi Y. Heat exchange between human body and environment [in Japanese]. In: Nakayama T, editor. Thermophysiology. Tokyo: Rikōgakusha, 1981: 33-72
92. Tikuisis P, McCracken DH, Radomski MW. Heat debt during cold air exposure before and after cold water immersions. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 60-8
93. Oohori T, Berglund LG, Gagge AP. Comparison of current two-parameter indices of vapour permeation of clothing - as factors governing thermal equilibrium and human comfort. ASHRAE Trans 1984; 90 (Pt 2A): 85-101
94. Parsons KC. Protective clothing: heat exchange and physiological objectives. Ergonomics 1988; 31: 991-1007
95. Nishi Y, Gagge AP. Direct evaluation of convective heat transfer coefficient by naphthalene sublimation. J Appl Physiol 1970; 29: 830-8
96. Kellogg Jr DL, Johnson JM, Kosiba WA. Control of internal temperature threshold for active cutaneous vasodilation by dynamic exercise. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 2476-82
97. Fortney SM, Nadel ER, Wenger CB, et al. Effect of acute alterations of blood volume on circulatory performance in humans. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 292-8
98. Mack GW, Nose H, Takamata A, et al. Influence of exercise intensity and plasma volume on active cutaneous vasodilation in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 209-16
99. Nadel ER, Fortney SM, Wenger CB. Effect of hydration state on circulatory and thermal regulations. J Appl Physiol 1980; 49: 715-21
100. Harrison MH. Effects of thermal stress and exercise on blood volume in humans. Physiol Rev 1985; 65: 149-209
101. Dill DB, Costill DL. Calculation of percentage changes in volumes of blood, plasma, and red cells in dehydration. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37: 247-8
102. Van Beaumont W. Evaluation of hemoconcentration from hematocrit measurements. J Appl Physiol 1972; 31: 712-3
103. Van Beaumont W, Greenleaf JE, Juhos L. Disproportional changes in hematocrit, plasma volume, and proteins during exercise and bed rest. J Appl Physiol 1972; 33: 55-61
104. Costill DL, Saltin B. Changes in the ratio of venous to body hematocrit following dehydration. J Appl Physiol 1974; 36: 608-10
105. Greenleaf JE, Convertino VA, Mangseth GR. Plasma volume during stress in man: osmolality and red cell volume. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47: 1031-8
106. Kolka MA, Stephenson LA, Wilkerson JE. Erythrocyte indices during a competitive marathon. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 168-72
107. Van Beaumont W. Red cell volume with changes in plasma osmolality during maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1973; 35: 47-50
108. Shephard RJ. Physiology and biochemistry of exercise. New York: Praeger, 1982
109. Costill DL, Branam L, Eddy D, et al. Alterations in red cell volume following exercise and dehydration. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37: 912-6
110. Harrison MH, Edwards RJ, Leitch DR. Effect of exercise and thermal stress on plasma volume. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39: 925-31
111. Convertino VA, Keil LC, Greenleaf JE. Plasma volume, renin, and vasopressin responses to graded exercise after training. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54: 508-14
112. Senay LC, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH. Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: body fluid adjustments. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40: 786-96
113. Shapiro Y, Hubbard RW, Kimbrough CM, et al. Physiological and hematologic responses to summer and winter dry-heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 792-8
114. Armstrong LE, Maresh CM. The induction and decay of heat acclimatization in trained athletes. Sports Med 1991; 12 (5): 302-12
115. Fellmann N. Hormonal and plasma volume alterations following endurance exercise: a brief review. Sports Med 1992; 13 (1): 37-49
116. Edwards RJ, Harrison MH. Intravascular volume and protein responses to running exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1984; 16: 247-55
117. Senay Jr LC. Effects of exercise in the heat on body fluid distribution. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 42-8
118. Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Pimental NA, et al. Hydration and vascular fluid shifts during exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 91-6
119. Sawka MN, Young AJ, Francesconi RP, et al. Thermoregulatory and blood responses during exercise at graded hypohydration levels. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1394-401
120. Sawka MN, Toner MM, Francesconi RP, et al. Hypohydration and exercise: effects of heat acclimation, gender, and environment. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 1147-53
121. Greenleaf JE, Van Beaumont W, Brock PJ, et al. Plasma volume and electrolyte shifts with heavy exercise in sitting and supine positions. Am J Physiol 1979; 236: R206-14
122. Miles DS, Sawka MN, Glaser RM, et al. Plasma volume shifts during progressive arm and leg exercise. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54: 491-5
123. Melin B, Eclache JP, Geelen G, et al. Plasma AVP, Neurophysin, renin activity, and aldosterone during submaximal exercise performed until exhaustion in trained and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 1980; 44: 141-51
124. Fortney SM, Nadel ER, Wenger CB, et al. Effect of blood volume on sweating rate and body fluids in exercising humans. J Appl Physiol 1981; 51: 1594-600
125. Senay Jr LC, Pivarnik JM. Fluid shifts during exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1985; 13: 335-87
126. Ladell WSS, Shephard RJ. Aldosterone inhibition and acclimatization to heat. J Physiol 1961; 160: 19P-20P
127. Kirby CR, Convertino VA. Plasma aldosterone and sweat sodium concentrations after exercise and heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61: 967-70
128. Allan HR, Wilson CG. Influence of acclimatization on sweat sodium concentration. J Appl Physiol 1971; 30: 708-12
129. Harrison MH, Edwards RJ, Graveney MJ, et al. Blood volume and plasma protein responses to heat acclimatization in humans. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 597-604
130. Smiles KA, Robinson S. Sodium ion conservation during acclimatization of men to work in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1971; 31: 63-9
131. Costill DL, Coté R, Fink W. Muscle water and electrolytes following varied levels of dehydration in man. J Appl Physiol 1976; 40: 6-11
132. Durkot MJ, Martinez O, Brooks-McQuade D, et al. Simultaneous determination of fluid shifts during thermal stress in a small-animal model. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61: 1031-4
133. Johnson JM. Exercise and the cutaneous circulation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1992; 20: 59-97
134. Johnson JM. Nonthermoregulatory control of human skin blood flow. J Appl Physiol 1986; 61: 1613-22
135. Johnson JM, Park MK. Effect of heat stress on cutaneous vascular responses to the initiation of exercise. J Appl Physiol 1982; 53: 744-9
136. Kellogg Jr OL, Johnson JM, Kosiba WA. Competition between cutaneous active vasoconstriction and active vasodilation during exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1991; 261: H1184-9
137. Torii M, Yamasaki M, Sasaki T, et al. Fall in skin temperature of exercising man. Br J Sports Med 1992; 26: 29-32
138. Johnson JM, Park MK. Effect of upright exercise on threshold for cutaneous vasodilation and sweating. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 814-8
139. Kellogg Jr DL, Johnson JM, Kenney WL, et al. Mechanisms of control of skin blood flow during prolonged exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1993; 265: H562-8
140. 1-Adrenergic blockade does not alter control of skin blood flow during exercise. Am J Physiol 1991; 260: H855-61
141. Nadel ER, Cafarelli E, Roberts MF, et al. Circulatory regulation during exercise in different ambient temperatures. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46: 430-7
142. Nose H, Mack GW, Shi X, et al. Effect of saline infusion during exercise on thermal and circulatory regulations. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 609-16
143. Roberts MF, Wenger CB. Control of skin circulation during exercise and heat stress. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 36-41
144. Fortney SM, Wenger CB, Bove JR, et al. Effect of hyperosmolality on control of blood flow and sweating. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57: 1688-95
145. Ohara K. Body temperature and thermal balance [in Japanese]. In: Nakayama T, Iriki M, editors. Handbook of physiological sciences: physiology of energy exchange and thermoregulation. Tokyo: Igaku-shoin, 1987: 89-108
146. Frascarolo P, Schutz Y, Jéquier E. Decreased thermal conductance during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in women. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 2029-33
147. Holloszy JO. Metabolic consequences of endurance exercise training. In: Horton ES, Terjung RL, editors. Exercise, nutrition, and energy metabolism. New York: Macmillan, 1988: 116-31
148. Rowell LB. Human cardiovascular control. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993
149. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Exercise physiology, energy, nutrition, and human performance. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1991
150. Clausen JP. Effect of physical training on cardiovascular adjustments to exercise in man. Physiol Rev 1977; 57: 779-815
151. Child JS, Barnard RJ, Taw RL. Cardiac hypertrophy and function in master endurance runners and sprinters. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57: 176-81
152. Roy A, Doyon M, Dumesnil JG, et al. Endurance vs strength training: comparison of cardiac structures using normal predicted values. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 2552-7
153. Clausen JP, Trap-Jensen J, Lassen NA. The effects of training on the heart rate during arm and leg exercise. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1970; 26: 295-301
154. McKenzie DC, Fox EL, Cohen K. Specificity of metabolic and circulatory responses to arm or leg interval training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1978; 39: 241-8
155. Fortney SM, Wenger CB, Bove JR, et al. Effect of blood volume on forearm venous and cardiac stroke volume during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 884-90
156. Snellen JW. Mean body temperature and the control of thermal sweating. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Neerl 1966; 14: 99-174
157. Mitchell JW, Nadel ER, Stolwijk JAJ. Respiratory weight losses during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1972; 32: 474-6
158. Verde T, Shephard RJ, Corey P, et al. Sweat composition in exercise and in heat. J Appl Physiol 1982; 53: 1540-5
159. Monteith JL. Latent heat of vaporization in thermal physiology. Nature New Biol 1972; 236: 96
160. Snellen JW, Mitchell D, Wyndham CH. Heat of evaporation of sweat. J Appl Physiol 1970; 29: 40-4
161. Wenger CB. Heat of evaporation of sweat: thermodynamic considerations. J Appl Physiol 1972; 32: 456-9
162. Mitchell D, Wyndham CH, Atkins AR, et al. Direct measurement of the thermal responses of nude resting men in dry environments. Pflugers Arch 1968; 303: 324-43
163. Hardy JD. Heat transfer. In: Newburgh LH, editor. Physiology of heat regulation and the science of clothing. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1949: 78-108
164. Nielsen B. Regulation of body temperature and heat dissipation at different levels of energy- and heat production in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1966; 68: 215-27
165. Shvartz E, Bhattacharya A, Sperinde SJ, et al. Sweating responses during heat acclimation and moderate conditioning. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46: 675-80
166. Taylor NAS. Eccrine sweat glands: adaptations to physical training and heat acclimation. Sports Med 1986; 3 (6): 387-97
167. Alber-Wallerström B, Holmér I. Efficiency of sweat evaporation in unacclimatized man working in a hot humid environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 480-7
168. Candas V, Libert JP, Vogt JJ. Human skin wettedness and evaporative efficiency of sweating. J Appl Physiol 1979; 46: 522-8
169. Candas V, Libert JP, Vogt JJ. Influence of air velocity and heat acclimation on human skin wettedness and sweating efficiency. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47: 1194-200
170. Hessemer V, Zeh A, Brück K. Effects of passive heat adaptation and moderate sweatless conditioning on responses to cold and heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 1986; 55: 281-9
171. Sato F, Owen M, Matthes R, et al. Functional and morphological changes in the eccrine sweat gland with heat acclimation. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 232-6
172. Craig FN, Moffitt JT. Efficiency of evaporative cooling from wet clothing. J Appl Physiol 1974; 36: 313-6
173. Burton AC. Human calorimetry. II: the average temperature of the tissues of the body. J Nutr 1935; 9: 261-80
174. Vallerand AL, Savourey G, Hanniquet A-M, et al. How should body heat storage be determined in humans: by thermometry or calorimetry? Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 286-94
175. Hardy JD, Du Bois EF. Basal metabolism, radiation, convection and vaporization at temperatures of 22 to 35°C. J Nutr 1938; 15: 477-97
176. Frim J, Livingstone SD, Reed LD, et al. Body composition and skin temperature variation. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 540-3
177. Kakitsuba N, Mekjavic IB. Determining the rate of body heat storage by incorporating body composition. Aviat Space Environ Med 1987; 58: 301-7
178. Pollock ML, Wilmore JH. Exercise in health and disease: evaluation and prescription for prevention and rehabilitation. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1990
179. Shephard RJ. Body composition in biological anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991
180. Webb P. Heat storage and body temperature during cooling and rewarming. Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 66: 18-24
181. Vallerand AL, Limmer R, Schmegner IF. Computer acquisition and analysis of skin temperature and heat flow data from heat flux transducers. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 1989; 30: 279-82
182. Libert J-P, Candas V, Sagot J-C, et al. Contribution of skin thermal sensitivities of large body areas to sweating response. Jpn J Physiol 1984; 34: 75-88
183. Nadel ER, Mitchell JW, Stolwijk JAJ. Differential thermal sensitivity in human skin. Pflugers Arch 1973; 340: 71-6
184. Mitchell D, Wyndham CH. Comparison of weighting formulas for calculating mean skin temperature. J Appl Physiol 1969; 26: 616-22
185. Colin J, Timbal J, Houdas Y, et al. Computation of mean body temperature from rectal and skin temperatures. J Appl Physiol 1971; 31: 484-9
186. Hardy JD, Stolwijk JAJ. Partitional calorimetric studies of man during exposures to thermal transients. J Appl Physiol 1966; 21: 1799-806
187. Shvartz E, Glick Z, Magazanik A. Responses to temperate, cold, and hot environments and the effect of physical training. Aviat Space Environ Med 1977; 48: 254-60
188. Bittel JHM. Heat debt as an index for cold adaptation in men. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 1627-34
189. Savourey G, Vallerand AL, Bittel JHM. General and local cold adaptation after a ski journey in a severe arctic environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 99-105
190. Vallerand AL, Savourey G, Bittel JHM. Determination of heat debt in the cold: partitional calorimetry vs conventional methods. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 1380-5
191. Nielsen B. Thermoregulation in rest and exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1969; Suppl. 323: 1-74
192. Stolwijk JAJ, Nadel ER. Thermoregulation during positive and negative work exercise. Fed Proc 1973; 32: 1607-13
193. Stolwijk JAJ, Hardy JD. Partitional calorimetric studies of responses of man to thermal transients. J Appl Physiol 1966; 21: 967-77
194. Holmér I, Elnäs S. Physiological evaluation of the resistance to evaporative heat transfer by clothing. Ergonomics 1981; 24: 63-74
195. Vallerand AL, Michas RD, Frim J, et al. Heat balance of subjects wearing protective clothing with a liquid- or air-cooled vest. Aviat Space Environ Med 1991; 62: 383-91
196. McLellan TM. Work performance at 40°C with Canadian Forces biological and chemical protective clothing. Aviat Space Environ Med 1993; 64: 1094-100
197. Louhevaara VA. Physiological effects associated with the use of respiratory protective devices: a review. Scand J Work Environ Health 1984; 10: 275-81
198. Raven PB, Dodson AT, Davis TO. The physiological consequences of wearing industrial respirators: a review. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1979; 40: 517-34
199. McLellan TM, Frim J. Heat strain in the Canadian Forces chemical defence clothing: problems and solutions. Can J Appl Physiol 1994; 19: 379-99
200. Goldman RF. Standards for human exposure to heat. In: Mekjavic IB, Banister EW, Morrison JB, editors. Environmental ergonomics: sustaining human performance in harsh environments. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1988: 99-136
201. Armstrong LE, Szlyk PC, Sils IV, et al. Prediction of the exercise-heat tolerance of soldiers wearing protective overgarments. Aviat Space Environ Med 1991; 62: 673-7
202. Pandolf KB, Burse RL, Goldman RF. Role of physical fitness in heat acclimatisation, decay and reinduction. Ergonomics 1977; 20: 399-408
203. Coggan AR, Coyle EF. Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: effects on metabolism and performance. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1991; 19: 1-40
204. Coyle EF, Coggan AR. Effectiveness of carbohydrate feeding in delaying fatigue during prolonged exercise. Sports Med 1984; 1 (6): 446-58
205. Hubbard RW, Armstrong LE. The heat illnesses: biochemical, ultrastructural, and fluid-electrolyte considerations. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark, 1988: 305-59
206. Martin BJ. Sleep deprivation and exercise. In: Pandolf KB, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. New York: Macmillan, 1986: 213-29
207. Maughan RJ, Noakes TD. Fluid replacement and exercise stress: a brief review of studies on fluid replacement and some guidelines for the athlete. Sports Med 1991; 12 (1): 16-31
208. Noakes TD. Fluid replacement during exercise. In: Holloszy JO, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993: 297-330
209. Sawka MN, Young AJ. Acute polycythemia and human performance during exercise and exposure to extreme environments. In: Pandolf KB, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1989: 265-93
210. Shephard RJ. Sleep, biorhythms and human performance. Sports Med 1984; 1 (1): 11-37
211. Stephenson LA, Kolka MA. Effect of gender, circadian period and sleep loss on thermal responses during exercise. In: Pandolf KB, Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, editors. Human performance physiology and environmental medicine at terrestrial extremes. Indianapolis: Benchmark Press, 1988: 267-304
212. Stephenson LA, Kolka MA. Thermoregulation in women. In: Holloszy JO, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993: 231-62
213. Armstrong LE, Costill DL, Fink WJ. Influence of diuretic-induced dehydration on competitive running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 456-61
214. Caldwell JE, Ahonen E, Nousiainen U. Differential effects of sauna-, diuretic-, and exercise-induced hypohydration. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57: 1018-23
215. Greenleaf JE, Castle BL. Exercise temperature regulation in man during hypohydration and hyperhydration. J Appl Physiol 1971; 30: 847-53
216. Maughan RJ, Fenn CE, Gleeson M, et al. Metabolic and circulatory responses to the ingestion of glucose polymer and glucose/electrolyte solutions during exercise in man. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 56: 356-62
217. Montain SJ, Coyle EF. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73: 1340-50
218. Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Critz JB. Thermal and circulatory responses to repealed bouts of prolonged running. Med Sci Sports 1979; 11: 177-80
219. Sawka MN, Knowlton RG, Glaser RM, et al. Effect of prolonged running on physiological responses to subsequent exercise. J Hum Ergol 1979; 8: 83-90
220. Sawka MN, Francesconi RP, Young AJ, et al. Influence of hydration level and body fluids on exercise performance in the heat. JAMA 1984; 252: 1165-9
221. Candas V, Libert JP, Brandenberger G, et al. Hydration during exercise: effects on thermal and cardiovascular adjustments. Eur J Appl Physiol 1986; 55: 113-22
222. Senay Jr LC. Temperature regulation and hypohydration: a singular view. J Appl Physiol 1979; 47: 1-7
223. Silva NL, Boulant JA. Effects of osmotic pressure, glucose, and temperature on neurons in preoptic tissue slices. Am J Physiol 1984; 247: R335-45
224. Nielsen B, Hansen G, Jorgensen SO, et al. Thermoregulation in exercising man during dehydration and hyperhydration with water and saline. Int J Biometeor 1971; 15: 195-200
225. Roberts MF, Wenger CB. Control of skin blood flow during exercise by thermal reflexes and baroreflexes. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 717-23
226. Bar-Or O, Dotan R, Inbar O, et al. Voluntary hypohydration in 10- to 12-year-old boys. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 104-8
227. Engell DB, Maller O, Sawka MN, et al. Thirst and fluid intake following graded hypohydration levels in humans. Physiol Behav 1987; 40: 229-36
228. Nose H, Mack GW, Shi X, et al. Role of osmolality and plasma volume during rehydration in humans. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 325-31
229. Rolls BJ, Wood RJ, Rolls ET, et al. Thirst following water deprivation in humans. Am J Physiol 1980; 239: R476-82
230. Kavanagh T, Shephard RJ. On the choice of fluid for the hydration of middle-aged marathon runners. Br J Sports Med 1977; 11: 26-35
231. Barr SI, Costill DL, Fink WJ. Fluid replacement during prolonged exercise: effects of water, saline, or no fluid. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 811-7
232. Hamilton MT, Gonzalez-Alonso J, Montain SJ, et al. Fluid replacement and glucose infusion during exercise prevent cardiovascular drift. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 871-7
233. Montain SJ, Coyle EF. Fluid ingestion during exercise increases skin blood flow independent of increases in blood volume. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73: 903-10
234. Maughan RJ, Fenn CE, Leiper JB. Effects of fluid, electrolyte and substrate ingestion on endurance capacity. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 481-6
235. Gisolfi CV, Copping JR. Thermal effects of prolonged treadmill exercise in the heat. Med Sci Sports 1974; 6: 108-13
236. Costill DL, Saltin B. Factors limiting gastric emptying during rest and exercise. J Appl Physiol 1974; 37: 679-83
237. McArthur KE, Feldman M. Gastric acid secretion, gastrin release, and gastric emptying in humans as affected by liquid meal temperature. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 49: 51-4
238. Sun WM, Houghton LA, Read NW, et al. Effect of meal temperature on gastric emptying of liquids in man. Gut 1988; 29: 302-5
239. Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, et al. Gastric emptying: influence of prolonged exercise and carbohydrate concentration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 269-74
240. Owen MD, Kregel KC, Wall PT, et al. Effects of ingesting carbohydrate beverages during exercise in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1986; 18: 568-75
241. Rehrer NJ, Beckers E, Brouns F, et al. Exercise and training effects on gastric emptying of carbohydrate beverages. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 540-9
242. Buick FJ, Gledhill N, Froese AB, et al. Effect of induced erythrocythemia on aerobic work capacity. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 636-42
243. Kanstrup I-L, Ekblom B. Blood volume and hemoglobin concentration as determinants of maximal aerobic power. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1984; 16: 256-62
244. Muza SR, Sawka MN, Young AJ, et al. Elite special forces: physiological description and ergogenic influence of blood reinfusion. Aviat Space Environ Med 1987; 58: 1001-4
245. Robertson RJ, Gilcher R, Metz KF, et al. Hemoglobin concentration and aerobic work capacity in women following induced erythrocythemia. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57: 568-75
246. Francesconi RP, Sawka MN, Dennis RC, et al. Autologous red blood cell reinfusion: effects on stress and fluid regulatory hormones during exercise in the heat. Aviat Space Environ Med 1988; 59: 133-7
247. Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, Young AJ, et al. Polycythemia and hydration: effects on thermoregulation and blood volume during exercise-heat stress. Am J Physiol 1988; 255: R456-63
248. Gisolfi CV, Summers RW, Schedl HP, et al. Human intestinal water absorption; direct vs indirect measurements. Am J Physiol 1990; 258: G216-22
249. Gisolfi CV, Spranger KJ, Summers RW, et al. Effects of cycle exercise on intestinal absorption in humans. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 2518-27
250. Coyle EF, Montain SJ. Benefits of fluid replacement with carbohydrate during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: S324-30
251. Williams C, Nute MG, Broadbank L, et al. Influence of fluid intake on endurance running performance: a comparison between water, glucose and fructose solutions. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 112-9
252. Seidman DS, Ashkenazi I, Arnon R, et al. The effects of glucose polymer beverage ingestion during prolonged outdoor exercise in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 458-62
253. Seiple RS, Vivian VM, Fox EL, et al. Gastric-emptying characteristics of two glucose polymer-electrolyte solutions. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15: 366-9
254. Sole CC, Noakes TD. Faster gastric emptying for glucose-polymer and fructose solutions than for glucose in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 605-12
255. Yaspelkis BB III, Ivy JL. Effect of carbohydrate supplements and water on exercise metabolism in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 680-7
256. Konikoff F, Shoenfeld Y, Magazanik A, et al. Effects of salt loading during exercise in a hot dry climate. Biomed Pharmacother 1986; 40: 296-300
257. Costill DL. Sweating: its composition and effects on body fluids. In: Milvy P, editor. The marathon: physiological, medical, epidemiological, and psychological studies. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences, 1977: 160-74
258. Costill DL, Branam C, Fink W, et al. Exercise induced sodium conservation: changes in plasma renin and aldosterone. Med Sci Sports 1976; 8: 209-13
259. Irving RA, Noakes TD, Irving GA, et al. The immediate and delayed effects of marathon running on renal function. J Urol 1986; 136: 1176-80
260. Irving RA, Noakes TD, Burger SC, et al. Plasma volume and renal function during and after ultramarathon running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 581-7
261. Irving RA, Noakes TD, Raine RI, et al. Transient oliguria with renal tubular dysfunction after a 90km running race. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 756-61
262. Armstrong LE, Hubbard RW, Szlyk PC, et al. Voluntary dehydration and electrolyte losses during prolonged exercise in the heat. Aviat Space Environ Med 1985; 56: 765-70
263. Dill DB, Soholt LF, McLean, et al. Capacity of young males and females for running in desert heat. Med Sci Sports 1977; 9: 137-42
264. Francis KT, MacGregor R III. Effect of exercise in the heat on plasma renin and aldosterone with either water or a potassium-rich electrolyte solution. Aviat Space Environ Med 1978; 49: 461-5
265. Armstrong LE, Costill DL, Fink WJ, et al. Effects of dietary sodium on body and muscle potassium content during heat acclimation. Eur J Appl Physiol 1985; 54: 391-7
266. Armstrong LE, Costill DL, Fink WJ. Changes in body water and electrolytes during heat acclimation: effects of dietary sodium. Aviat Space Environ Med 1987; 58: 143-8
267. Knochel JP, Vertel RM. Salt loading as a possible factor in the production of potassium depletion, rhabdomyolysis, and heat injury. Lancet 1967; 1: 659-61
268. Nose H, Morita M, Yawata T, et al. Recovery of blood volume and osmolality after thermal dehydration in rats. Am J Physiol 1986; 251: R492-8
269. Wade CE. Response, regulation, and actions of vasopressin during exercise: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1984; 16: 506-11
270. Brandenberger G, Candas V, Follenius M, et al. The influence of the initial state of hydration on endocrine responses to exercise in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 674-9
271. Thrasher TN, Nistal-Herrera JF, Keil LC, et al. Satiety and inhibition of vasopressin secretion after drinking in dehydrated dogs. Am J Physiol 1981; 240: E394-401
272. Thrasher TN, Wade CE, Keil LC, et al. Sodium balance and aldosterone during dehydration and rehydration in the dog. Am J Physiol 1984; 247: R76-83
273. Hessemer V, Brück K. Influence of menstrual cycle on thermoregulatory, metabolic, and heart rate responses to exercise at night. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1911-7
274. Pivarnik JM, Marichal CJ, Spillman T, et al. Menstrual cycle phase affects temperature regulation during endurance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 543-8
275. Silva NL, Boulant JA. Effects of testosterone, estradiol, and temperature on neurons in preoptic tissue slices. Am J Physiol 1986; 250: R625-32
276. Cannon JG, Dinarello CA. Increased plasma interleukin-1 activity in women after ovulation. Science 1985; 227: 1247-9
277. Hessemer V, Brück K. Influence of menstrual cycle on shivering, skin blood flow, and sweating responses measured at night. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 1902-10
278. Stephenson LA, Kolka MA. Menstrual cycle phase and time of day alter reference signal controlling arm blood flow and sweating. Am J Physiol 1985; 249: R186-91
279. Avellini BA, Kamon E, Krajewski JT. Physiological responses of physically fit men and women to acclimation to humid heat. J Appl Physiol 1980; 49: 254-61
280. Frye AJ, Kamon E. Responses to dry heat of men and women with similar aerobic capacities. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50: 65-70
281. Frye AJ, Kamon E. Sweating efficiency in acclimated men and women exercising in humid and dry heat. J Appl Physiol 1983; 54: 972-7
282. Frye AJ, Kamon E, Webb M. Responses of menstrual women, amenorrheal women, and men to exercise in a hot, dry environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 1982; 48: 279-88
283. Carpenter AJ, Nunneley SA. Endogenous hormones subtly alter women's response to heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 2313-7
284. Little MA, Rummel JA. Circadian variations in thermal and metabolic responses to heat exposure. J Appl Physiol 1971; 31: 556-61
285. Reilly T, Brooks GA. Investigation of circadian rhythms in metabolic responses to exercise. Ergonomics 1982; 25: 1093-107
286. Minors DS, Waterhouse JM. Endogenous and exogenous components of circadian rhythms when living on a 21-hour day. Int J Chronobiol 1981; 8: 31-48
287. Wever RA. Fractional desynchronization of human circadian rhythms: a method for evaluating entrainment limits and functional interdependencies. Pflugers Arch 1983; 396: 128-37
288. Stephenson LA, Wenger CB, O'Donovan BH, et al. Circadian rhythm in sweating and cutaneous blood flow. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: R321-4
289. Wenger CB, Roberts MF, Stolwijk JAJ, et al. Nocturnal lowering of thresholds for sweating and vasodilation. J Appl Physiol 1976; 41: 15-9
290. Henane R, Buguet A, Roussel B, et al. Variations in evaporation and body temperatures during sleep in man. J Appl Physiol 1977; 42: 50-5
291. Sagot JC, Amoros C, Candas V, et al. Sweating responses and body temperatures during nocturnal sleep in humans. Am J Physiol 1987; 252: R462-70
292. Kolka MA, Stephenson LA. Exercise thermoregulation after prolonged wakefulness. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64: 1575-9
293. Kolka MA, Martin BJ, Elizondo RS. Exercise in a cold environment after sleep deprivation. Eur J Appl Physiol 1984; 53: 282-5
294. Sawka MN, Gonzalez RR, Pandolf KB. Effects of sleep deprivation on thermoregulation during exercise. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: R72-7
295. Plyley MJ, Shephard RJ, Davis GM, et al. Sleep deprivation and cardiorespiratory function: influence of intermittent submaximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1987; 56: 338-44
296. Buono MJ, Sjoholm NT. Effect of physical training on peripheral sweat production. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65: 811-4
297. Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Goldman RF. Sex differences in acclimation to a hot-dry environment. Ergonomics 1980; 23: 635-42
298. Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Avellini BA, et al. Heat balance and transfer in men and women exercising in hot-dry and hot-wet conditions. Ergonomics 1981; 24: 375-86
299. Anderson RK, Kenney WL. Effect of age on heat-activated sweat gland density and flow during exercise in dry heat. J Appl Physiol 1987; 63: 1089-94
300. Kenney WL, Anderson RK. Responses of older and younger women to exercise in dry and humid heat without fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 155-60
301. Kenney WL, Tankersley CG, Newswanger DL, et al. Age and hypohydration independently influence the peripheral vascular response to heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 1902-8
302. Kolka MA, Stephenson LA, Rock PB, et al. Local sweating and cutaneous blood flow during exercise in hypobaric environments. J Appl Physiol 1987; 62: 2224-9
303. Kolka MA, Siephenson LA, Gonzalez RR. Depressed sweating during exercise at altitude. J Therm Biol 1989; 14: 167-70
304. Havenith G, Van Middendorp H. The relative influence of physical fitness, acclimatization state, anthropometric measures and gender on individual reactions to heat stress. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 419-27
305. Horstman DH, Christensen E. Acclimatization to dry heat: active men vs active women. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 825-31
306. Shapiro Y, Pandolf KB, Avellini BA, et al. Physiological responses of men and women to humid and dry heat. J Appl Physiol 1980; 49: 1-8
307. Smolander J, Korhonen O, Ilmarinen R. Responses of young and older men during prolonged exercise in dry and humid heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 413-8
308. Tankersley CG, Smolander J, Kenney WL, et al. Sweating and skin blood flow during exercise: effects of age and maximal oxygen uptake. J Appl Physiol 1991; 71: 236-42
309. Delamarche P, Bittel J, Lacour JR, et al. Thermoregulation at rest and during exercise in prepubertal boys. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 436-40
310. Dawson B. Exercise training in sweat clothing in cool conditions to improve heat tolerance. Sports Med 1994; 17 (4): 233-44
311. Ihzuka H, Hori S, Akumatsu T. Seasonal variations of physiological responses to heat of subtropical and temperate natives. Int J Biometeor 1986; 30: 107-13