Clinical biochemistry of pregnancy

Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 67-139

  Lockitch, Gillian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biochemistry; Diagnosis; Endocrine; Pregnancy; Reference ranges; Screening

Indexed keywords

PEPTIDE HORMONE; PROSTAGLANDIN; STEROID HORMONE;

BIOCHEMISTRY; BLOOD VOLUME; CLINICAL CHEMISTRY; FEMALE; FETOPLACENTAL UNIT; HUMAN; METABOLISM; PHYSIOLOGY; PLASMA VOLUME; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0030893343     PISSN: 10408363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/10408369709038216     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Hytten FE. Weight gain in pregnancy. In: Hytten F, Chamberlain G, eds. Clinical physiology in obstetrics. 2nd ed. Pp. 173-203. London: Blackwell Scientific, 1991.
2. Stock MK, Metcalfe J. Maternal physiology during gestation. In: Knobil E, Neill JD, eds.The physiology of reproduction. 2nd ed. Pp. 947-83. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
3. Parisi VM, Creasy RK. Maternal biologic adaptations to pregnancy. In: Reece EA, Hobbins JC, Mahoney MJ et al. eds. Medicine of the fetus and mother. Pp. 831-49. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1992.
4. Hytten F, Chamberlain G, eds. Clinical physiology in obstetrics. 2nd ed. Pp. 173-203. London: Blackwell Scientific, 1991.
5. Lockitch G. ed. Handbook of diagnostic biochemistry and hematology in normal pregnancy. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993.
6. Jameson JL, Hollenberg AN. Regulation of human chorionic gonadotropin gene expression. Endocr Rev 1993; 14: 203-21.
7. Steele GL, Currie WD, Ho Yuen B et al. Acute stimulation of secretion by recombinant Activin-A in first trimester human trophoblasts. Endocrinology 1993; 133: 297-303.
8. Johnson MR, Abbas AA, Irvine R et al. Regulation of corpus luteum function. Hum Reprod 1994; 9: 41-8.
9. Dokras A, Sargent IL, Ross C et al. The human blastocyst: morphology and human chorionic gonadotrophin secretion in vitro. Hum Reprod 1991; 6: 1143-51.
10. Shepherd RW, Pattern PE, Novy MJ et al. Serial beta hCG measurements in early detection of ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1990; 75: 417.
11. Norton ME. Biochemical and ultrasound screening for chromosomal abnormalities. Semin Perinatol 1994; 18: 256-265.
12. Macintosh MCM, Iles R, Teisner B et al. Maternal serum human chorionic gonadotrophin and pregnancy-associated plasma protein A, markers for fetal Down syndrome at 8 to 14 weeks. Prenatal Diagn 1994; 14: 203-8.
13. Brambati B, Tului L, Bonacchi I, et al. Serum PAPP-A and free β-hCG are first trimester screening markers for Down syndrome. Prenatal Diagn 1994; 14: 1043-7.
14. Goodwin TM, Montoro M, Mestman JH, et al. The role of chorionic gonadotropin in transient hyperthyroidism of hyperemesis gravidarum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 75: 1333-7.
15. Solomon S. The primate placenta as an endocrine organ. Steroids. In: Knobil E, Neill JD eds. The physiology of reproduction. 2nd ed. Pp. 863-73. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
16. David M, Israel N, Merksamer R et al. Very low maternal serum unconjugated estriol and prenatal diagnosis of steroid sulfatase deficiency. Fetal Diag Ther 1995; 10: 76-80.
17. Chard T. Placental hormones and metabolism. In: Reece EA, Hobbins JC, Mahoney MJ, et al. eds. Medicine of the fetus and mother. Pp. 88-96. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1992.
18. Jovanovic-Peterson L, Peterson CM. Glucose metabolism in pregnancy. In: Cowett RM. ed. Principles of perinatal-neonatal metabolism. Pp. 149-62. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.
19. Lindheimer MD, Barron WM Davison JM. Osmoregulation of thirst and vasopressin release in pregnancy. Am J Physiol 1989; 257: F159-69.
20. Robson SC, Hunter S, Boys RJ, et al. Serial study of factors influencing changes in cardiac output during human pregnancy. Am J Physiol 1989; 256: H1060-5.
21. Kohlmeier L, Marcus R. Calcium disorders of pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 1995; 24: 15-39.
22. Magann EF, Martin JN. The laboratory evaluation of hypertensive gravidas. Obstet Gynecol Survey 1995; 50: 138-45.
23. Riely CA. Hepatic disease in pregnancy. Am J Med 1994; 96(Suppl 1A): 185-225.
24. Boumpas DT, Fessler BJ, Austin HA, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus: emerging concepts. II. Dermatologic and joint disease, the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, pregnancy and hormonal therapy, morbidity and mortality and pathogenesis. Ann Int Med 1995; 123: 42-53.
25. Faught W, Garner P, Jones G, et al. Changes in protein C and protein as levels in normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 147-50.
26. Cook G, Walker ID, McCall F, et al. Familial thrombophilia and activated protein C resistance: thrombotic risk in pregnancy. Br J Hematol 1994; 87: 873-5.
27. Paidas MJ, Haut MJ Lockwood CJ. Platelet disorders in pregnancy. Implications for mother and fetus. Mt Sinai J Med 1994; 61: 389-403.
28. Burrows RF, Kelton JG. Thrombocytopenia at delivery: a prospective study of 6715 deliveries. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 162: 731-4.
29. Sullivan CA, Magann EF Perry KG. The recurrence risk of the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelets. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 940-3.
30. Dison PJ, Lockitch G, Halstead AC, et al. Influence of maternal factors on cord and neonatal plasma micronutrient levels. Am J Perinatol 1993; 10: 30-5.
31. Metz J. Folate deficiency during pregnancy and lactation. In: Zittoun JA, Cooper B. eds. Folates and cobalamins. Pp. 161-70 Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1989
32. MRC Vitamin Study Research Group: Prevention of neural tube defects: Results of the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study. Lancet 1991; 338: 131.
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for use of folic acid to reduce number of spina bifida cases and other neural tube defects. JAMA 1993; 269: 1236-8.
34. Jameson S. Zinc status in pregnancy: the effect of zinc therapy on perinatal mortality, prematurity and placental ablation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993; 678: 178-192.
35. Mahomed F, Hytten F. Iron and folate supplementation in pregnancy. In: Chalmers I, Enkin M Keirse MJC. eds. Pp. 301-17. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
36. Sheldon WL, Aspillaga MO, Smith PA, et al. The effects of oral iron supplementation on zinc and magnesium levels during pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 92: 92-8.
37. Bloxam DL, Williams NR, Waskett RJD, et al. Maternal zinc during iron supplementation in pregnancy: a preliminary study. Clin Sci 1989; 76: 59-65.
38. Lockitch G. Selenium: clinical signficance and analytical concepts. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1989; 27: 483-51.
39. Delange F. The disorders induced by iodine deficiency. Thyroid 1994; 4: 107-28.
40. Vanderpas JB, Contempre B, Duale NL, et al. Iodine and selenium deficiency associated with cretinism in Northern Zaire. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52:1087-93.
41. Kaplan MM. Assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy. Thyroid 1992: 2: 57-61.
42. Stockigt JR. Assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy:comment. Thyroid 1992: 2: 63-64.
43. Lockitch G, Halstead AC Dimmick JE. Endocrine system. In: Dimmick JE, Kalousek DK. eds. Developmental pathology of the embryo and fetus. Pp 707-48. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Company, 1991.
44. Manganiello PD, Adams LV, Harris RD, et al. Virilization during pregnancy with spontaneous resolution postpartum: a case report and review of the English literature. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1995; 50: 404-10.
45. Prager D, Braunstein GD. Pituitary disorders during pregnancy. Endocrinol Metabol Clin N Am 1995; 24: 1-14.
46. Eriksson L, Frankenne F, Eden S, et al. Growth hormone 24 hour profiles during pregnancy - lack of pulsatility for the placental variant. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 96: 949-53.
47. Burrow GN, Fisher DA Larsen PR. Maternal and fetal thyroid function. N Eng J Med 1994; 331: 1072-8.
48. Okamoto E, Takagi T, Makino T, et al. Immunoreactive corticotropin-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in human plasma during pregnancy and delivery and post partum. Horm Metab Res 1989; 21: 566-72.
49. Sheeler LR. Cushing's syndrome and pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 1994; 23: 619-27.
50. Botchan A, Hauser R, Kupfermine M, et al. Pheochromocytoma in pregnancy: case report and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1995; 50: 321-7.
51. Persson B, Hansson U. Hypoglycemia in pregnancy. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 7: 731-9.
52. Lawson HW, Atrash HK, Saftlas AF, et al. Ectopic pregnancy in the United States, 1970-1986. MMWR 1990; 38: 1-10
53. Shapiro BS, Cullen M, Tayler KJ, et al. Transvaginal ultrasonography for the diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. Fertil Steril 1988; 50: 425-9.
54. Cole LA, Kardana A, Seifer DB, et al. Urine hCG β-subunit core fragment, a sensitive test for ectopic pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 497-9:
55. Goldstein DP, Berkowitz RS. Current management of complete and partial molar pregnancy. J Reprod Med 1994; 39: 139-46.
56. Lawler SD. A prospective genetic study of complete and partial hydatidiform moles. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 164: 1270-7.
57. Steller MA, Genest DR, Bernstein MR, et al. Natural history of twin pregnancy with complete hydatidiform mole and coexisting fetus. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83: 35-42.
58. Mestman JH, Goodwin TM Montoro MM. Thyroid disorders of pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 1995; 254: 41-71.
59. National High Blood Pressure Working Group Report on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163: 1689-1712.
60. Barron WM. Hypertension. In: Barron WM, Lindheimer MD. Medical disorders in pregnancy 2nd ed. Pp. 1-36. St Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1995.
61. Stevenson JT, Graham DJ. Hepatic hemorrhage and the HELLP syndrome: a surgeon's perspective. Am Surgeon 1995; 61: 756-60.
62. Harms K, Rath W, Herting E, et al. Maternal hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelet count and neonatal outcome. Am J Perinatol 1995; 12: 1-6.
63. Usta IM, Sibai BM. Emergent management of puerperal eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am 1995; 22: 315-35.
64. Andriole VT, Patterson TF. Epidemiology, natural history and management of urinary tract infections in pregnancy. Med Clin N Am 1991; 75: 359-73.
65. Pertuiset N, Grünfeld J-P. Acute renal failure in pregnancy. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 8: 333-51
66. Abe S. An overview of pregnancy in women with underlying renal disease. Am J Kid Dis 1991; 17: 112-5.
67. Jungers P, Houillier P, Forget D, et al. Specific controversies concerning the natural history of renal disease in pregnancy. Am J Kid Dis 1991; 17: 16-22.
68. Combs CA, Kitzmiller JL. Diabetic nephropathy and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1991; 34: 505-15.
69. Swanson SK, Heilman RL Eversman WG. Urinary tract stones in pregnancy. Surg Clin N Am 1995; 75: 123-42.
70. Usta IM, Barton JR, Amon EA, et al. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy: an experience in the diagnosis and management of fourteen cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 1347-7.
71. Pagan EA. Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Br Med J 1994; 309: 1243-4
72. Sadler LC, Lane M North R. Severe fetal intracranial hemorrhage during treatment with cholestyramine for intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1995: 102: 169-70.
73. Yarze JC, Martin P Muńoz SJ. Wilson's disease: current status. Am J Med 1992; 92: 643-54.
74. Shimono N, Ishibashi H, Ikematsu H, et al. Fulminant hepatic failure during perinatal period in a pregnant woman with Wilson's disease. Gastroenterol Jpn 1991; 26: 69-73.
75. Petri M, Allbritton J. Fetal outcome of lupus pregnancy: a retrospective case-control study of the Hopkins Lupus Cohort. J Rheumatol 1993; 20: 650-6.
76. Love PE, Santoro SA. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the lupus anticoagulant in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and in non-SLE disorders. Ann Int Med 1990; 112: 682-98.
77. McNeil HP, Chesterman CN Krilis SA. Immunology and clinical importance of antiphospholipid antibodies. Adv Immunol 1991; 49: 93-280.
78. Waltuck J, Buyon JP. Autoantibody associated congenital heart block: outcome in mothers and children. Ann Int Med 1994; 120: 544-51.
79. Lockwood CJ, Rand JH. The immunobiology and obstetrical consequences of antiphospholipid antibodies. Obstet Gynecol Survey 1994; 49: 432-41.
80. Cowchock FS, Reece EA, Balaban D, et al. Repeated fetal losses associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: A collaborative randomized trial comparing prednisone with low-dose heparin treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 66: 1318-1323.
81. Molitch ME. Clinical manifestations of acromegaly. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 1992; 21: 597-614.
82. Iwasaki Y, Oiso Y, Kunikazu K, et al. Aggravation of sub-clinical diabetes insipidus during pregnancy. N Eng J Med 1991; 324: 522-6.
83. Leung AS, Millar LK, Koonings PP, et al. Perinatal outcome in hypothyroid pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81: 349-53.
84. Jovanovic-Peterson L, Peterson CM. De novo clinical hypothyroidism in pregnancies complicated by type I diabetes, subclinical hypothyroidism and proteinuria: a new syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 442-6.
85. Kelly TR. Primary hyperparathyroidsim during pregnancy. Surgery 1991; 110: 1028-34.
86. Loughead JL, Mughal Z, Mimouni F, et al. Spectrum and natural history of congenital hyperparathyroidism secondary to maternal hypocalcemia. Am J Perinatol 1990; 7: 350-5.
87. Anonymous. Gestation and Diabetes in France Study Group. Multicenter survey of diabetic pregnancy in France. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 994-1000.
88. Perinatal mortality and congenital malformation in infants born to women with insulin-dependent diabetes. MMWR 1990; 39: 363-5.
89. Mills JL, Simpson JL, Driscoll SG, et al. Incidence of spontaneous abortion among normal women and insulin-dependent diabetic women whose pregnancies were identified within 21 days of conception. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1617-23.
90. Salvesen DR, Brudenell MJ Nicholaides KH. Fetal polycythemia and thrombocytopenia in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 166: 1287-93.
91. Cousins L, Baxi L, Chez R, et al. Screening recommendations for gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 165: 493-6.
92. Magee MS, Walden CE, Benedetti TJ, et al. Influence of diagnostic criteria in the incidence of gestational diabetes and perinatal mortality. JAMA 1993; 269: 609-15.
93. Platt LD, Koch R, Azen C, et al. Maternal phenylketonuria collaborative study, obstetric aspects and outcome: the first 6 years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 166: 1150-.
94. Lenke RR, Levy HL. Maternal phenylketonuria and hyperphenylalaninemia. An international survey of the outcome of treated and untreated pregnancies. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 1202-8
95. Yerby MS. Pregnancy, teratogenesis and epilepsy. Neurol Clin 1994; 12: 749-71.
96. Main DM, Mennuti MT. Neural tube defects: issues in prenatal diagnosis and counseling. Obstet Gynecol 1986; 67: 1-16.
97. Whiteman VE, Reece EA. Prenatal diagnosis of major congenital malformations. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1994; 6: 459-67.
98. Dick PT, Canadian Task Force on Periodic Health Examination. Periodic Health Examination, 1996 update. I. Prenatal screening for and diagnosis of Down syndrome. Can Med Assoc J 1996; 154: 465-79.
99. Shackley P, McGuire A, Boyd PA, et al. An economic appraisal of alternative prenatal screening programmes for Down's syndrome. J Publ Health Med 1993; 15: 175-184.
100. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Knight GJ, et al. Reducing the need for amniocentesis in women 35 years or older with serum markers for screening. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1114-8.
101. Van Lith JMM, Dutch Working Group on Prenatal Diagnosis. First trimester maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein as a marker for fetal chromosomal disorders. Prenatal Diagn 1994; 14: 961-71.
102. Bersinger NA, Brizot ML, Johnson A, et al. First trimester maternal serum pregnancy-associated plasma protein A and pregnancy-specific β1-glycoprotein in fetal trisomies. Br J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 101: 970-4.
103. Bianchi DW. Prenatal diagnosis by analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. J Pediatr 1995; 127: 847-856.
104. Gänshirt D, Garritsen HSP Holzgreve W. Fetal cells in maternal blood. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1995; 7: 103-8.
105. Liley AW. Liquor amnii analysis in the management of the pregnancy complicated by rhesus sensitization. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1961; 82: 1359-70.
106. Queenan JT, Tomai TP, Ural SH, et al. Deviation in the amniotic fluid optical density at a wave length of 450 nm in Rh-immunized pregnancies from 14 to 40 weeks gestation: a proposal for clinical management. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 1370-6.
107. Gollin YG, Copel JA. Management of the Rh-sensitized mother. Clin Perinatol 1995; 22: 545-59.
108. Moise KJ. Changing trends in the management of red blood cell alloimmunization in pregnancy. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1994; 118: 421-8.
109. Gluck L, Kulovich MV, Borer RC, et al. Diagnosis of the respiratory distress syndrome by amniocentesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971; 109: 440-5.
110. Clements JA, Platzker ACG, Tierney DF, et al. Assessment of the risk of the respiratory distress syndrome by a rapid test for surfactant in amniotic fluid. N Engl J Med 1972; 286: 1077-81.
111. Lockitch G, Wittmann BK, Mura SM, et al. Evaluation of the Amniostat-FLM assay for assessment of fetal lung maturity. Clin Chem 1984; 30: 1233-7.
112. Lockitch G, Wittmann BK, Snow BE, et al. Prediction of fetal lung maturity by use of the lumadex-FSI test. Clin Chem 1986; 32: 361-3.
113. Hagen E, Link JC Arias F. A comparison of the accuracy of the TDx-FLM assay, lecithin-sphingomyelin ratio, and phosphatidylglycerol in the prediction of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82: 1004-8.
114. Dalence CR, Bowie LJ, Dohnal JC, et al. Amniotic fluid lamellar body count: a rapid and reliable fetal lung maturity test. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86: 235-9.
115. Gabbe S.G. Fetal lung maturity. In: Queenan JT. ed. Management of high-risk pregnancy. Pp. 152-4. Boston: Blackwell Scientific, 1994.
116. Resnick R, Moore TR. Obstetric management of the high-risk patient. In: Burrows GN, Ferris TF, eds. Medical complications during pregnancy. 4th ed. Pp. 96-122. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1995.
117. Lo Y-MD, Noakles L, Bowell PJ, et al. Detection of fetal RhD sequence from peripheral blood of sensitized RhD-negative pregnant women. Br J Hematol 1994; 87: 658-60.
118. Iams JD, Casal D, McGregor JA, et al. Fetal fibronectin improves the accuracy of diagnosis of preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 173: 141-5.