Clinically significant drug interactions with general anaesthetics

CNS Drugs

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 51-78

  Naguib, Mohamed ^a   Magboul, Magboul M A ^a   Jaroudi, Randa ^a  

^a KING KHALID UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; AMITRIPTYLINE; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BRONCHODILATING AGENT; CIMETIDINE; DESFLURANE; DIAZEPAM; ENFLURANE; ETOMIDATE; HALOTHANE; INHALATION ANESTHETIC AGENT; ISOFLURANE; KETAMINE; LIDOCAINE; NITRIC OXIDE; OPIATE; PANCURONIUM; PHENYTOIN; PROPOFOL; PROPRANOLOL; RESERPINE; SEVOFLURANE; THIOPENTAL; VECURONIUM; VERAPAMIL; WARFARIN;

ADVERSE DRUG REACTION; ANESTHESIA; ARTICLE; DRUG METABOLISM; GERIATRIC PATIENT; HUMAN; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHARMACOKINETICS; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 0030879377     PISSN: 11727047     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00023210-199708010-00005     Document Type: Article

References (263)

1. May FE, Stewart RB, Cluff LE. Drug interactions and multiple drug administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 22: 322-8
2. Cluff LE, Thornton GF, Seidl LG. Studies on the epidemiology of adverse drug reactions. I. Methods of surveillance. JAMA 1964; 188: 976-83
3. Nolan L, O'Malley K. Prescribing for the elderly. II. Prescribing patterns: differences due to age. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 245-54
4. Gilchrist WJ, Lee YC, Tam HC, et al. Prospective study of drug reporting by general practitioners for an elderly population referred to a geriatric service. BMJ 1987; 294: 289-90
5. Borda IT, Slone D, Jick H. Assessment of adverse reactions within a drug surveillance program. JAMA 1968; 205: 645-7
6. Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Adverse drug interactions [editorial]. JAMA 1972; 220: 1238-9
7. Durrence III CW, DiPiro JT, May JR, et al. Potential drug interactions in surgical patients. Am J Hosp Pharm 1985; 42: 1553-6
8. Jick H, Miettinen OS, Shapiro S, et al. Comprehensive drug surveillance. JAMA 1970; 213: 1455-60
9. Miller RR. Drug surveillance utilizing epidemiologic methods: a report from the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program. Am J Hosp Pharm 1973; 30: 584-92
10. Naguib M, Samarkandi AH, Bakhamees HS, et al. Comparative potency of steroidal neuromuscular blocking drugs and isobolographic of the interaction between rocuronium and other aminosteroids. Br J Anaesth 1995; 75: 37-42
11. Naguib M. Neuromuscular effects of rocuronium bromide and mivacuriuin chloride administered alone and in combination. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 388-95
12. Loewe S. The problem of synergism and antagonism of combined drugs. Arzneimittel Forschung 1953; 3: 285-90
13. Berenbaum MC. Synergy, additivism and antagonism in immuno-suppression. A critical review. J Clin Exp Immunol 1977; 28: 1-18
14. Berenbaum MC. What is synergy? Pharmacol Rev 1989; 41: 93-141
15. 2 receptor systems. Anesthesiology 1994; 80: 1338-48
16. Wood M. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions in anaesthetic practice. Clin Pharmacokinet 1991; 21: 285-307
17. Epstein RM, Rackow H, Salanitre E, et al. Influence of the concentration effect on the uptake of anesthetic mixtures: the second gas effect. Anesthesiology 1964; 25: 364-71
18. Altmayer P, Büch U, Hutschenreuter K, et al. The volatile anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane and isoflurane, influence the distribution of thiopental in man differently. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1987; 31: 756-61
19. Cockshott ID, Briggs LP, Douglas EJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol in female patients. Studies using single bolus injection. Br J Anaesth 1987; 59: 1103-10
20. Dale O, Nilsen OG. Displacement of sonic basic drugs from human serum proteins by enflurane, halothane and their metabolites. Br J Anaesth 1984; 56: 535-42
21. Dale O. The interaction of enflurane, halothane and the halothane metabolite trifluoroucetic acid with the binding of acidic drugs to human serum albumin: an in vitro study. Biochem Pharmacol 1986; 35: 557-61
22. Calvo R, Aguilera L, Suarez E, et al. Displacement of warfarin from human serum proteins by halothane anesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1989; 33: 575-7
23. Karlin JM, Kutt H. Acute diphenylhydantoin intoxication following halothane anesthesia. Ped Pharmacol Therap 1970; 76: 941-4
24. Dale O, Frink EJ, Thommesen L, et al. Hepatic elimination of diazepam: interactions with albumin, desflurane and sevoflurane. Br J Anaesth 1993; 70: 454-5
25. Reilly CS, Wood AJJ, Koshakji RP, et al. The effect of halothane on drug disposition: contribution changes in intrinsic drug metabolizing capacity and hepatic blood flow. Anesthesiology 1985; 63: 70-6
26. Gordon L, Wood AJJ, Koshakji RP, et al. Acute effects of halothane anesthesia on arterial and venous concentrations of propranolol in the dog. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 225-30
27. Chelly JE, Hysing ES, Abernethy DR, et al. Effects of inhalational anesthetics on verapamil pharmacokinetics in dogs. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: 266-71
28. Johnstone M. Propranolol (Inderal) during halothane anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1966; 38: 516-29
29. Boyce JR, Cervenko FW, Wright FJ. Effects of halothane on the pharmacokinetics of lidocaine in digitalis-toxic dogs. Can Anaesth Soc J 1978; 25: 323-8
30. Bentley JB, Glass S, Gandolfi AJ. The influence of halothane on lidocaine pharmacokinetics in man [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: A246
31. Borel JD, Bentley JB, Nenad RE, et al. The influence of halothane on fentanyl pharmacokinetics [abstract]. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: A239
32. Lehmann KA, Weski C, Hunger L, et al. Biotransformation of fentanyl: II. Acute drug interactions in rats and men. Anaesthetist 1982; 31: 221-7
33. Mather LE, Runciman WB, Ilsley AH, et al. A sheep preparation for studying interactions between blood flow and drug disposition: V. The effects of general and subarachnoid anaesthesia on blood flow and pethidine disposition. Br J Anaesth 1986; 58: 888-96
34. Nebert DW, Nelson DR, Coon MJ, et al. The P450 superfamily: update on new sequence, gene mapping and recommended nomenclature. DNA Cell Biol 1991; 10: 1-14
35. Brosen K, Skjelbo E. Fluoxetine and norfluoxetine are potent inhibitors of P450IID6 - the source of sparteine/debrisoquine oxidation polymorphism. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1991; 36: 136-7
36. Tyndale RF, Kalow W, Inaba T. Oxidation of reduced haloperidol to haloperidol: involvement of human P-450IID6. Br J Pharmacol 1991; 31: 655-60
37. Murray M. P450enzymes. Inhibition, mechanisms, genetic regulation and effects of liver disease. Clin Pharmacokinet 1992; 23: 132-46
38. Stack CG, Rogers P, Linter SPK. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and anaesthesia. A review. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 222-7
39. Ahr HJ, King LJ, Nastainczyk W, et al. The mechanism of reductive dehalogenation of halothane by liver cytochrome P-450. Biochem Pharmacol 1982; 31: 383-90
40. Stenger RJ, Johnson EA. Effects of phenobarbital pretreatment on the response of rat liver to halothane administration. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1972; 140: 1319-24
41. Van Dyke RA. Halogenated anaesthetic hepatotoxicity - is an answer close at hand? Clin Anaesthesiol 1983; 1: 485-506
42. Wood M, Uetrech J, Phythyon JM, et al. The effect of cimetidine on anesthetic metabolism and toxicity. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 481-8
43. Plummer JL, Wanwimolruk S, Jenner MA, et al. Effects of cimetidine and ranitidine on halothane metabolism and hepatotoxicity in an animal model. Drug Metab Dispos 1984; 12: 106-10
44. Holaday DA, Rudofsky S, Treuhaft PS. The metabolic degradation of methoxyflurane in man. Anesthesiology 1970; 33: 589-93
45. Mazze RI, Cousins MJ, Kosek JC. Strain differences in metabolism and susceptibility to nephrotoxic effects of methoxyflurane in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1973; 184: 481-8
46. Kharasch ED, Thummel KE. Identification of cytochrome P450 2E1 as the predominant enzyme catalyzing human liver microsomal defluorination of sevoflurane, isoflurane, and methoxyflurane. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 795-807
47. Thummel KE, Kharasch ED, Podoll T, et al. Human liver microsomal enflurane defluorination catalyzed by cytochrome P-450 2E1. Drug Metab Dispos 1993; 21: 350-7
48. Kharasch ED, Hankins DC, Thummel KE. Human kidney methoxyflurane and sevoflurane metabolism. Intrarenal fluoride production as a possible mechanism of methoxyflurane nephrotoxicity. Anesthesiology 1995; 82: 689-99
49. Oikkonen MP. Isoflurane inhibits enflurane metabolism in man. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 763-4
50. Yeager MP, Coombs DW, Dodge CP, et al. Effect of cimetidine on biotransformation of enflurane in man. Can Anaesth Soc J 1986; 33: 466-70
51. Mazze RI, Woodruff RE, Heerdt ME. Isoniazid-induced enflurane defluorination in humans. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 5-8
52. Rice SA, Sbordone L, Mazze RI. Metabolism by rat hepatic microsomes of fluorinated ether anesthetics following isoniazid administration. Anesthesiology 1980; 53: 489-93
53. Dale O, Brown BR. Clinical pharmacokinelics of the inhalational anaesthetics. Clin Pharmacokinel 1987; 12: 145-67
54. Johnston RR, Eger II EI, Wilson C. A comparative interaction of epinephrine with enflurane, isoflurane and halothane in man. Anesth Analg 1976; 55: 709-12
55. Weiskopf RB, Eger II EI, Holmes MA, et al. Epinephrine-induced premature ventricular contractions and changes in arterial pressure and heart rate during 1-653, isoflurane, and halothane anesthesia in swine. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 293-8
56. Doi M, Ikeda K. Sevoflurane anesthesia and adenosine triphosphate for resection of pheochromocytoma. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 360-3
57. Bennett JA, Eltringham RJ. Possible dangers of anaesthesia in patients receiving fenfluramine. Results of animal studies following a case of human cardiac arrest. Anaesthesia 1977; 32: 8-13
58. Van Der Spek AF, Hantler CB. Phenylephrine eyedrops and anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1986; 64: 812-4
59. Katz RL, Lord CO, Eakins KE. Anesthetic-dopamine cardiac arrhythmias and their prevention by beta adrenergic blockade. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1967; 158: 40-5
60. Takaori M, Loehning RW. Ventricular arrhythmias during halothane anaesthesia: effect of isoproterenol, aminophylline, and ephedrine. Can Anaesth Soc J 1965; 12: 275-80
61. Tucker WK, Backstein AD, Munson ES. Comparison of arrhythmic doses of adrenaline, metaraminol, ephedrine and phenylephrine during isoflurane and halothane anaesthesia in dogs. Br J Anaesth 1974; 46: 392-6
62. Craig DB, Bose D. Drug interactions in anaesthesia: chronic antihypertensive therapy. Can Anaesth Soc J 1984; 31: 580-8
63. Munson WM, Jenicek JA. Effect of anesthetic agents on patients receiving reserpine therapy. Anesthesiology 1962; 23: 741-6
64. Ominsky AJ, Wollman H. Hazards of general anesthesia in the reserpinized patient. Anesthesiology 1969; 30: 443-6
65. Miller RD, Way WL, Eger II EI. The effects of alpha-methyldopa, rescrpine, guanethidine and iproniazid on minimum alveolar anesthetic requirement (MAC). Anesthesiologv 1968; 29: 1153-8
66. Salonen MA, Kanto JH, Maze M. Clinical interactions with alpha-2-adrenergic agonists in clinical practice. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4: 164-72
67. Vickery RG, Sheridan BC, Segul IS, et al. Anesthetic and hemodynamic effects of the stereoisomers of medetomidine, an a2-adrenergic agonist, in halothane-anesthetized dogs. Anesth Analg 1988; 67: 611-5
68. Bloor BC, Frankland M, Alper G, et al. Hemodynamic and sedative effects of dexmedetomidine in dug. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 263: 690-7
69. Longnecker DE. Alpine anesthesia: can pretreatment with clonidine decrease the peaks and valleys? Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 1-2
70. Mirenda JV, Grissom TE. Anesthetic implications of the renin-angiotensin system and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Anesth Analg 1991; 72: 667-83
71. Woodside Jr J, Garner L, Bedford RF, et al. Captopril reduces the dose requirement for sodium nitroprusside induced hypotension. Anesthesiology 1984; 60: 413-7
72. Colson P, Saussine M, Seguin JR, et al. Hemodynamic effects of anesthesia in patients chronically treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Anesth Analg 1992; 74: 805-8
73. Viljoen JF, Estafanous FG, Kellner GA. Propanolol and cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1972; 64: 826-30
74. Alderman EL, Coltart DJ, Wettach GE, et al. Coronary artery syndromes after sudden propranolol withdrawal. Ann Intern Med 1974; 81: 625-7
75. Shand DG. Propranolol withdrawal [editorial]. N Engl J Med 1975; 293: 449-50
76. Samuels SI, Maze M. Beta-receptor blockade following the use of eye drops. Anesthesiology 1980; 52: 369-70
77. Jakobsen CJ, Blom L. Effect of pre-operative metoprolol on cardiovascular and catecholamine response and bleeding during hysterectomy. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1992; 9: 209-15
78. Jakobsen CJ, Grabe N, Christensen B. Metoprolol decreases the amount of halothane required to induce hypotension during general anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1986; 58: 261-6
79. Katz AM. Cardiac ion channels. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1244-51
80. Scott DB, Buckley FP, Littlewood DG, et al. Circulatory effects of labetalol during halothane anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1978; 33: 145-56
81. Hunter JM. Synergism between halothane and labetalol. Anaesthesia 1979; 34: 257-9
82. Toivonen J, Virtanen H, Kaukinen S. Deliberate hypotension induced by labetalol and halothane, enflurane or isoflurane for middle-ear surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1989; 33: 283-9
83. Hantler CB, Wilton N, Learned AE, et al. Impaired myocardial conduction in patients receiving diltiazem therapy during enflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 94-6
84. Reves JG, Kissin I, Lell WA, et al. Calcium entry blockers: uses and implications for anesthesiologists. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 504-18
85. Hysing ES, Chelly JE, Doursout M-F, et al. Cardiovascular effects of and interaction between calcium blocking drugs and anesthetics in chronically instrumented dogs: III. Nicardipine and isoflurane. Anesthesiology 1986; 65: 385-91
86. Merin RG, Chelly JE, Hysing ES, et al. Cardiovascular effects of and interaction between calcium blocking drugs and anesthetics in chronically instrumented dogs: IV. Chronically administered oral verapamil and halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 140-6
87. Kapur PA, Matarazzo DA, Fung DM, et al. The cardiovascular and adrenergic actions of verapamil or diltiazem in combination with propranolol during halothane anesthesia in the dog. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 122-9
88. Zimpfer M, Fitzal S, Tonczar L. Verapamil as a hypotensive agent during neurolept anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1981, 53: 885-9
89. Maze M, Mason DM, Kates RE. Verapamil decreases the MAC for halothane in dogs. Anesthesiology 1983; 59: 327-9
90. Nugent M, Tinker JH, Moyer TP. Verapamil worsens rate of development and hemodynamic effects of acute hyperkalemia in halothane anesthetized dogs: effects of calcium therapy. Anesthesiology 1984; 60: 435-9
91. Yoshimura N, Kodama K, Yoshitake J. Carbohydrate metabolism and insulin release during ether and halothane anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1971; 43: 1022-6
92. Clarke RSJ, Johnston H, Sheridan B. The influence of anaesthesia and surgery on plasma Cortisol, insulin and free falty acids. Br J Anaesth 1970; 42: 295-9
93. Richards W, Thompson J, Lewis G, et al. Cardiac arrest associated with halothane anesthesia in a patient receiving theophylline. Ann Allergy 1988; 61: 83-4
94. Roizen MF, Stevens WC. Multiform ventricular tachycardia due to the interaction of aminophylline and halothane. Anesth Analg 1978; 57: 738-41
95. Stirt JA, Berger JM, Roe SD, et al. Safety of enflurane following administration of aminophylline in experimental animals. Anesth Analg 1981; 60: 871-3
96. Berger JM, Stirt JA, Sullivan SF, Enflurane, halothane and aminophylline - uptake and pharmacokinetics. Anesth Analg 1983; 62: 733-7
97. Marcus ML, Skelton CL, Grauer LE, et al. Effects of theophyllineon myocardial mechanics. Am J Physiol 1972; 222: 1361-5
98. Westfall DP, Flemming WW. Sensitivity changes in the dog heart to norepinephrine, calcium and aminophylline resulting from pretreatment with reserpine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1968; 159: 98-106
99. Thiagarajah S, Grynsztejn M, Lear E, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias after terbutaline administration to patients anesthetized with halothane. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 417-8
100. Hirshman CA, Bergman NA. Halothane and enflurane protect against bronchospasm in an asthma dog model. Anesth Analg 1978; 57: 629-33
101. Stirt JA, Berger JM, Sullivan SF. Lack of arrhythmogenicity of isoflurane following administration of aminophylline in dogs. Anesth Analg 1983; 62: 568-71
102. Ballin JC. Toxicity of tricyclic antidepressants [editorial]. JAMA 1975; 231: 1369
103. Sprague DH, Wolf S. Enflurane seizures in patients taking amitriptyline. Anesth Analg 1982; 61: 67-8
104. Edwards RP, Miller RD, Roizen MF, et al. Cardiac responses to imipramine and pancuronium during anesthesia with halothane or enflurane. Anesthesiology 1979; 50: 421-5
105. Drugs for psychiatric disorders. Med Lett Drues Ther 1989; 31: 13-20
106. Janowsky EC, Risch C, Janowsky DS. Effects of anesthesia on patients taking psychotropic drugs. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1981; 1: 14-20
107. Goldberg LI. Dopamine - clinical uses of an endogenous catecholamine. N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 707-10
108. Ngai SH. Parkinsonism, levodopa, and anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1972; 37: 344-51
109. Muldoon SM, Cress L, Freas W. Presynaptic adrenergic effects of anesthetics. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1989; 27: 259-64
110. Segal IS, Walton JK, Irwin I, et al. Modulating role of dopamine on anesthetic requirements. Eur J Pharmacol 1990; 186: 9-15
111. Murphy MR, Hug Jr CC. The enflurane sparing effect of morphine, butorphanol and nalbuphine. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 489-92
112. Murphy MR, Hug Jr CC. The anesthetic potency of fentanyl in terms of its reduction of enflurane MAC. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 485-8
113. Hall RI, Szlam F, Hug Jr CC. The enflurane-sparing effect of alfentanil in dogs. Anesth Analg 1987; 66: 1287-91
114. Hall RI, Murphy MR, Hug Jr CC. The enflurane sparing effect of sufentanil in dogs. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 518-25
115. Sebel PS, Glass PSA, Fletcher JE, et al. Reduction of the MAC of desflurane with fentanyl. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 52-9
116. Melvin MA, Johnson BH, Quasha AL, et al. Induction of anesthesia with midazolam decreases halothane MAC in humans. Anesthesiology 1982; 57: 238-41
117. Eger II EI. Desflurane animal and human pharmacology: aspects of kinetics, safety and MAC. Anesth Analg 1992; 75 Suppl.: S3-7
118. Naguib M, Seraj M, Abdulrazik E. Pipecuronium-induced neuromuscular blockade during nitrous oxide-fentanyl, enflurane, isoflurane and halothane anesthesia in surgical patients. Anesth Analg 1992; 75: 193-7
119. Swen J, Rashkovsky OM, Ket JM, et al. Interaction between nondepolarizing blocking agents and inhalational anesthetics. Anesth Analg 1989; 69: 752-5
120. Caldwell JE, Kitts JB, Heier T, et al. The dose-response relationship of mivacurium chloride in humans during nitrous oxide-fentanyl or nitrous oxide-enflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 31-5
121. Wright PMC, Hart P, Lau M, et al. The magnitude and time course of vecuronium potenliation by desflurane versus isoflurane. Anesthesiology 1995; 82: 404-11
122. Vanlinthout LEH, Booij LHD, Egmond JV, et al. Effect of isoflurane and sevoflurane on the magnitude and time course of neuromuscular block produced by vecuronium, pancuronium and atracurium. Br J Anaesth 1996; 76: 389-95
123. Vitez TS, Miller RD, Eger II EI, et al. Comparison in vitro of isoflurane and halothane potentiation of d-tubocurarine and succinylcholine neuromuscular blockades. Anesthesiology 1974; 41: 53-6
124. Waud BE, Waud DR. The effects of diethyl ether, enflurane, and isoflurane at the neuromuscular junction. Anesthesiology 1975; 42: 275-80
125. Waud BE, Waud DR. Comparison of the effects of general anesthetics on the end-plate of skeletal muscle. Anesthesiology 1975; 43: 540-7
126. Gencarelli P, Miller RD, Eger II EI, et al. Decreasing enflurane concentrations and d-tubocurarine neuromuscular blockade. Anesthesiology 1982; 56: 192-4
127. Bruce DL. Anesthetic-induced increase in murine mortality from cyclophosphamide. Cancer 1973; 31: 361-3
128. Goldiner PL, Carlon GC, Cvitkovic E, et al. Factors influencing postoperative morbidity and mortality in patients treated with bleomycin. BMJ 1978; 1: 1664-7
129. Singer MM, Wright F, Stanley LK, et al. Oxygen toxicity in man. A prospective study in patients after open-heart surgery. N Engl J Med 1970; 283: 1473-8
130. Ueland PM, Retsum H, Wesenberg F. Methotrexate therapy and nitrous oxide anaesthesia [letter]. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1514
131. Kroes AC, Ermens Jr AA, Lindemans J, et al. More on methotrexate-nitrous oxide interaction [letter]. N Engl J Med 1986; 315: 895
132. Chung F. Cancer, chemotherapy and anaesthesia. Can Anaesth Soc J 1982; 29: 364-71
133. Bahlman SH, Eger II EI, Smith NT, et al. The cardiovascular effects of nitrous oxide-halothane anesthesia in man. Anesthesiology 1971; 35: 274-85
134. Kawamura R, Stanley T, English JB, et al. Cardiovascular responses to nitrous oxide exposure for two hours in man. Anesth Analg 1980; 59: 93-9
135. Cahalan MK, Weiskopf RB, Eger II EI, et al. Hemodynamic effects of desflurane/nitrous oxide anesthesia in volunteers. Anesth Analg 1991; 73: 157-64
136. Saidman LJ, Eger II EI. Effect of nitrous oxide and of narcotic premedication on the alveolar concentrations of halothane required for anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1964; 25: 302-6
137. Fisher DM, Zwass MS. MAC of desflurane in 60% nitrous oxide in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 354-6
138. Chung B, Naraghi M, Adrian J. Sympathomimetic effects of cocaine and their influence on halothane and enflurane anesthesia. Anesthesiol Rev 1978; 3: 16-9
139. 2 absorbents during low-flow anesthesia in surgical patients. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 1064-9
140. Fang ZX, Eger II EI, Laster MJ, et al. Carbon monoxide production from degradation of desflurane, enflurane, isoflurane, halothane, by soda lime and Baralyme®. Anesth Analg 1995; 80: 1187-93
141. Pyles ST, Pashayan AG. Anesthesia and neuroradiology: considerations regarding metrizamide [letter]. Anesthesiology 1983; 58: 590-1
142. Ghoneim MM, Pandya HB, Kelley SE, et al. Binding of thiopental to plasma proteins: effects on distribution in the brain and heart. Anesthesiology 1975; 42: 545-9
143. Brand L, Mark LC, Snell M, et al. Physiological disposition of methohexital in man. Anesthesiology 1967; 18: 228-30
144. Burch PG, McLeskey CH. Anesthesia for patients with insulinoma treatment with oral diazoxide. Anesthesiology 1981; 55: 472-5
145. Kaukinen S, Eerola M, Ylitalo P. Prolongation of thiopentone anaesthesia by probenecid. Br J Anaesth 1980; 52: 603-7
146. McAfee JG, Willson, JKV. A review of the complications of translumbar aortography. Am J Roentgenol 1956; 75: 956-70
147. Seideman P, Borg KO, Haglund K, et al. Decreased plasma concentrations and clinical effects of alprenolol during combined treatment with pentobarbitone in hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987; 23: 267-71
148. Collste P, Seideman P, Borg KO, et al. Influence of pentobarbital on effect and plasma levels of alprenolol and 4-hydroxyalprenolol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1979; 25: 423-7
149. Haglund K, Seideman P, Collste P, et al. Influence of pentobarbital on metoprolol plasma levels. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1979; 26: 326-9
150. Elis J, Laurence DR, Mattie H, et al. Modification by monoamine oxidase inhibitors of the effect of some sympathomimetics on blood pressure. BMJ 1967; 2: 75-8
151. Sjoqvist F. Psychotropic drugs (2). Interaction between monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors and other substances. Proc R Soc Med 1965; 58 Suppl.: 967-78
152. Kato R, Chiesara E, Vassanelli P. Further studies on inhibition and stimulation of microsomal drug metabolizing enzymes of rat liver by various compounds. Biochem Pharmacol 1964; 13: 69-83
153. Moody JP, Whyte SF, MacDonald AJ, et al. Pharmacokinetic aspects of protriptyline plasma levels. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1977; 11: 51-6
154. Dundee JW, Halliday NJ, McMurray TJ, et al. Pretreatment with opioids. The effect on thiopentone induction requirements and on the onset of action of midazolam. Anaesthesia 1986; 41: 159-61
155. Naguib M, Sari-Kouzel A. Thiopentone-propofol hypnotic synergism in patients. Br J Anaesth 1991; 67: 4-6
156. Tverskoy M, Fleyshman G, Bradley EL, et al. Midazolam-thiopental anesthetic interaction in patients. Anesth Analg 1988; 67: 342-5
157. Short TG, Galletly DC, Plummer JL. Hypnotic and anaesthetic action of thiopentone and midazolam alone and in combination. Br J Anaesth 1991; 66: 13-9
158. Manani G, Valenti S, Vincenti E, et al. Interaction between thiopentone and subhypnotic doses of ketamine. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1992; 9: 43-7
159. Mehta D, Bradley EL, Kissin I. Metoclopramide decreases thiopental hypnotic requirements. Anesth Analg 1993; 77: 784-7
160. Hayashi Y, Sumikawa K, Yamatodani A, et al. Myocardial sensitization by thiopental to arrhylhmogenic action of epinephrine in dogs. Anesthesiology 1989; 71: 929-35
161. Mokriski BLK, Nagle SE, Papuchis GC, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy-induced cardiac arrhythmias during anesthesia with methohexital, thmmylal, or thiopental sodium. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4: 208-12
162. Dundee JW, Riding JE, Barron DW, et al. Some factors influencing the induction characteristics of methohexitone anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1961; 33: 296-302
163. Wright PJ, Shortland JR, Stevens JD, et al. Fatal haemopathological consequences of general anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 1989; 62: 104-7
164. Abel JG, Sellers EM, Naranjo CA, et al. Inter- and intrasubject variation in diazepam free fraction. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1979; 26: 247-55
165. Allonen H, Ziegler G, Klotz U. Midazolam kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 30: 653-61
166. Dundee JW, Halliday NJ, McMurray TJ. Aspirin and probenecid pretreatment influences the potency of thiopentone and the onset of action of midazolam. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1986; 3: 247-51
167. Olkkola KT, Backman JT, Neuvonen PJ. Midazolam should be avoided in patients receiving the systemic antimycotics ketoconazole or itraconazole. Pharmacol Ther 1994; 55: 481-5
168. Vajda FJE, Prineas RJ, Lovell RRH. Interaction between phenytoin and the benzodiazepines. BMJ 1971; 1: 346
169. Rogers HJ, Haslam RA, Longstreth J, et al. Phenytoin intoxication during concurrent diazepam therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977; 40: 840-5
170. Houghton GW, Richens A. Inhibition of phenytoin metabolism by other drugs used in epilepsy. Int J Clin Pharmacol Biopharm 1975; 12: 210-6
171. Backman JT, Olkkola KT, Ojala M, et al. Concentration and effects of oral midazolam are greatly reduced in patients treated with carbamazepine or phenytoin. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 253-7
172. Ochs HR, Greenblatt DJ, Verburg-Ochs B. Effects of alprazolam on digoxin kinetics and creatinine clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 38: 595-8
173. Castillo-Fernando JR, Garcia M, Carmona J. Digoxin levels and diazepam [letter]. Lancet 1980; II: 368
174. Desmond PV, Roberts RK, Wood AJJ, et al. Effect of heparin administration on plasma binding of benzodiazepines. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1980; 9: 171-5
175. Brown JE, Kitchell BB, Bjornsson TD, et al. The artifactual nature of heparin-induced drug protein-binding alterations. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 30: 636-43
176. Locniskar A, Greenblatt DJ, Harmatz JS, et al. Interaction of diazepam with famotidine and cimetidine, two H2-receptor antagonists. J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 26: 299-303
177. Pourbaix S, Desager JP, Hulhoven R, et al. Pharmacokinetic consequences of long term coadministration of cimetidine and triazolobenzodiazepines, alprazolam and triazolam, in healthy subjects. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1985; 23: 447-51
178. Ochs HR, Greenblatt DJ, Gugler R, et al. Cimetidine impairs nitrazepam clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983; 34: 227-30
179. Klotz U, Reimann I. Delayed clearance of diazepam due to cimetidine. N Engl J Med 1980; 302: 1012-4
180. 2-receptor antagonists and benzodiazepine sedation: a double-blind placebo-controlled investigation of the effects of cimetidine and ranitidine on recovery after intravenous midazolam. Anaesthesia 1993; 48: 286-92
181. Elwood RJ, Hildebrand PJ, Dundee JW, et al. Ranitidine influences the uptake of oral midazolam. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 15: 743-5
182. Fee JPH, Collier PS, Howard PJ, et al. Cimetidine and ranitidine increase midazolam bioavailability. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1987; 41: 80-4
183. Olkkola KT, Aranko K, Luurila H, et al. A potentially hazardous interaction between erythromycin and midazolam. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993; 53: 298-305
184. Hiller A, Olkkola KT, Isohanni P, et al. Unconsciousness associated with midazolam and erythromycin. Br J Anaesth 1990, 65: 826-8
185. Backman JT, Olkkola KT, Aranko K, et al. Dose of midazolam should be reduced during diltiazem and verapamil treatments. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 37: 221-5
186. Gugler R, Jensen JC. Omeprazole inhibits elimination of diazepam [letter]. Lancet 1984; 1: 969
187. Abernethy DR, Greenblatt DJ, Divoll M, et al. Impairment of diazepam metabolism by low dose estrogen containing oral contraceptive steroids. N Engl J Med 1982; 306: 791-2
188. Shenfield GM, Griffin JM. Clinical pharmacokinetics of contraceptive steroids: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet 1991; 20: 15-37
189. Ochs HR, Greenblatt DJ, Roberts GM. Diazepam interaction with antituberculosis drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 29: 671-8
190. Silbert BS, Rosow CE, Keegan CR, et al. The effect of diazepam on induction of anesthesia with alfentanil. Anesth Analg 1986; 65: 71-7
191. Short TG, Plummer JL, Chui PT. Hypnotic and anaesthetic interactions between midazolam, propofol and alfentanil. Br J Anaesth 1992; 69: 162-7
192. Hong W, Short TG, Hui TWC. Hypnotic und anesthetic interactions between ketamine and midazolam in female patients. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 1227-32
193. Cartwright PO, Pingel SM. Midazolam and diazepam in ketamine anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 439-42
194. Arvidsson S, Niemand D, Martineil S. Aminophylline reversal of diazepam sedation. Anaesthesia 1984; 39: 806-9
195. Marrosu F, Marchi A, De Martino MR, et al. Aminophylline antagonizes diazepam-induced anesthesia and EEG changes in humans. Psychopharmacolojzy 1985; 86: 69-70
196. Meyer BH, Weis OF, Muller FO. Antagonism of diazepam by aminophylline in healthy volunteers. Anesth Analg 1984; 63: 900-2
197. Kirkpatrick T, Cockshott ID, Douglas EJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol (Diprivan) in elderly patients. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 146-50
198. Altmayer P, Büch U, Büch HP, et al. Propofol binding to human blood proteins. Arzneimittel Forschung 1995; 45: 1053-6
199. Gepts E, Jonckheer K, Maes V, et al. Disposition kinetics of propofol during alfentanil anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1988; 43 Suppl.: 8-13
200. Dixon J, Roberts FL, Tackley RM, et al. Study of possible interaction between fentanyl and propofol using computer-controlled infusion of propofol. Br J Anaesth 1990; 64: 142-7
201. Gill SS, Wright EM, Reilly CS. Pharmacokinetic interaction of propofol and fentanyl: single bolus injection study. Br J Anaesth 1990; 65: 760-5
202. Perry SM, Whelan E, Shay S, et al. Effect of i.v. anaesthesia with propofol on drug distribution and metabolism in the dog. Br J Anaesth 1991; 66: 66-72
203. Littler C, McConachie I, Healy TEJ. Interaction between enalapril and propofol. Anaesth Intensive Care 1989; 17: 514-5
204. Wittenstein U, Lyle DJR. Fits after alfentanil and propofol [letter]. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 532-3
205. Hopkins CS. Recurrent opisthotonus associated with anaesthesia [letter]. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 904
206. Victory RAP, Magee DA. A case of convulsion after propofol anaesthesia [letter]. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 904
207. Cameron AE. Opisthotonos again [letter]. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 1124
208. Hodkinson BP, Frith RW, Mee EW. Propofol and the electroenchephalogram [letter]. Lancet 1987; II: 1518
209. Kamibayushi T, Hayashi Y, Sumikawa K, et al. Enhancement by propofol of epinephrine-induced arrhythmia in dogs. Anesthesiology 1991; 75: 1035-40
210. Taylor BL, Collins C. Aminophylline and propofol: apparent antagonism [letter]. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 508
211. Baraka A. Severe bradycardia following propofol-suxamethonium sequence. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61: 482-3
212. Naguib M. Anaphylactoid reactions following propofol-atracurium sequence [letter]. Can J Anaesth 1989; 36: 3: 358-9
213. Wieber J, Gugler R, Hengstmann JH, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ketamine in man. Anaesthetist 1975; 24: 260-3
214. Lo JL, Cumming JF. Interaction between sedative premedicants and ketamine in man and in isolated perfused rat livers. Anesthesiology 1975; 43: 307-12
215. Marietta MP, White PF, Pudwill CR, et al. Biodisposition of ketamine in the rat: self-induction of metabolism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1976; 196: 536-44
216. White PF, Marietta MP, Pudwill CR. Effects of halothane anesthesia on the biodisposition of ketamine in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1976; 196: 545-55
217. Idvall J, Aronsen KF, Stenberg P, et al. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions between ketamine and diazepam. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 24: 337-43
218. Domino EF, Domino SE, Smith RE, et al. Ketamine kinetics in unpremedicated and diazepam-premedicated subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1984; 36: 645-53
219. Kreter B. Ketamine as an anesthetic agent for interventional radiology. Semin Intervent Radiol 1987; 4: 183-8
220. White PF, Way WL, Trevor AJ. Ketamine - its pharmacology and therapeutic uses. Anesthesiology 1982; 56: 119-36
221. Green SM, Johnson NE. Ketamine sedation for pediatric procedures. Part 2: review and implications. Ann Emerg Med 1990; 19: 1033-46
222. Hirshman CA, Krieger W, Littlejohn G, et al. Ketamine-aminophylline-induced decrease in seizure threshold. Anesthesiology 1982; 56: 464-7
223. Johnston RR, Miller R, Way WL. The interaction of ketamine with d-tubocurarine, pancuronium, and succinylcholine in man. Anesth Analg 1974; 53: 496-501
224. Toft P, Helbo-Hansen S. Interaction of ketamine with atracurium. Br J Anaesth 1989; 62: 319-20
225. Helbo-Hansen HS, Toft P, Nielsen HK. Ketamine does not affect suxamethonium-induced neuromuscular blockade in man. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1989; 6: 419-23
226. Ghoneim MM, Korttila K. Pharmacokinetics of intravenous anaesthetics: implications for clinical use. Clin Pharmacokinet 1977; 2: 344-72
227. Schuttler J, Wilms M, Lauven PM, et al. Pharmacokinetics of etomidate in man. Anaesthetist 1980; 29: 658-61
228. Atiba JO, Horai Y, White PF, et al. Effect of etomidate on hepatic drug metabolism in humans. Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 920-4
229. Gooding JM, Corssen G. Etomidate: an ultrashort-acting non-barbiturate agent for anesthesia induction. Anesth Analg 1976; 55: 286-8
230. Inoue K, El-Banayosy A, Stolarski L, et al. Vecuronium induced bradycardia following induction of anaesthesia with etomidate or thiopentone, with or without fentanyl. Br J Anaesth 1988; 60: 10-7
231. Booij LH, Crul JF. The comparative influence of gamma-hydroxy butyric acid, althesin and etomidate on the neuromuscular blocking potency of pancuronium in man. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1979; 30: 219-23
232. Shee JC. Dangerous potentiation of pethidine by iproniazid and its treatment. BMJ 1960; 2: 507-9
233. Wells DG, Bjorksten AR. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors revisited. Can J Anaesth 1989; 36: 64-74
234. Evans-Prosser CD. The use of pethidine and morphine in the presence of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Br J Anaesth 1968; 40: 279-82
235. Browne B, Linter S. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors and narcotic analgesics. A critical review of the implications for treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 151: 210-2
236. Pond SM, Kretschzmar KM. Effect of phenytoin on meperidine clearance and normeperidine formation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 30: 680-6
237. Mojaverian P, Fedder IL, Vlasses PH, et al. Cimetidine does not alter morphine disposition in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1982; 14: 809-13
238. Lam AM, Clement JL. Effect of cimetidine premedication on morphine-induced ventilalory depression. Can Anaesth Soc J 1984; 31: 36-43
239. Guay DR, Meatherall RC, Chalmers JL, et al. Cimetidine alters pethidine disposition in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 18: 907-14
240. Guay DR, Meatherall RC, Chalmers JL, et al. Ranitidine does not alter pethidine disposition in man. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1985; 20: 55-9
241. Martinez-Abad M, Gomis FD, Ferrer JM, et al. Ranitidine-induced confusion with concomitant morphine [letter]. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1988; 22: 914-5
242. Stoekel H, Hengstmaun JH, Schuttler J. Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl as a possible explanation for recurrence of respiratory depression. Br J Anaesth 1979; 51: 741-5
243. 2 receptor antagonists and anaesthesia. Can Anaesth Soc J 1983; 30: 264-9
244. Lowenthal DT, Porter S, Saris S, et al. Clinical pharmacology, pharmacodynamics and interactions with esmolol. Am J Cardiol 1985; 56: 14F-8F
245. Tomicheck RC, Rosow CE, Philbin DM, et al. Diazepam-fentanyl interaction - hemodynamic and hormonal effects in coronary artery surgery. Anesth Analg 1983; 62: 881-4
246. Eckenhoff JK, Heirich M. The effect of narcotics, thiopental and nitrous oxide upon respiratory response to hypercapnia. Anesthesiology 1958; 19: 240-53
247. Stambaugh JE, Hemphill DM, Wainer IW, et al. A potentially toxic drug interaction between pethidine (meperidine) and phenobarbitone. Lancet 1977; 1: 398-9
248. Anon. Barbiturates and barbiturate-like drugs: considerations in their medical use. JAMA 1974; 230: 1440-1
249. Stambaugh Jr JE, Wainer IW. Drug interaction: meperidine and chlorpromazine, a toxic combination. J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 21: 140-6
250. El-Kadre D, Giordano C. The 'lytic cocktail' induces recurrence of fits in the treatment of eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 151: 143-5
251. Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, et al., editors. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 8th ed. New York: Pergamon Press, 1990
252. Liberman BA, Teasdale SJ. Anaesthesia and amiodarone. Can Anaesth Soc J 1985; 32: 629-38
253. Gallagher JD, Lieberman RW, Meranze J, et al. Amiodarone-induced complications during coronary artery surgery. Anesthesiology 1981; 55: 186-8
254. Ghignone M, Quintin L, Duke PC, et al. Effects of clonidine on narcotic requirements and hemodynamic response during induction of fentanyl anesthesia and endotracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 1986; 64: 36-42
255. Flacke JW, Bloor BC, Flacke WE, et al. Reduced narcotic requirement by clonidine with improved hemodynamic and adrenergic stability in patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery. Anesthesiology 1987; 67: 11-9
256. Manara AR, Shelly MP, Quinn K, et al. The effect of metoclopramide on the absorption of oral controlled release morphine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 25: 518-21
257. Wiklund RA, Ngai SH. Rigidity and pulmonary edema after Innovar in a patient on levodopa therapy: report of a case. Anesthesiology 1971; 35: 545-7
258. Serup J, Brun C. Interaction of lithium and neuroleptics. Ugeskr Laeger 1980; 142: 2643-4
259. Gonzalez FJ. In vitro systems for prediction of rates of drug clearance and drug interactions [editorial]. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 413-5
260. Yun C-H, Wood M, Wood AJJ, et al. Identification of the pharmacogenetic determinants of alfentanil metabolism: cytochrome P-450 3A4. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 467-74
261. Gebhart GF. Comments on the isobole method for analysis of drug interactions [letter]. Pain 1992; 51: 381
262. Tallarida RJ. A further comment on testing for drug synergism [letter]. Pain 1992; 51: 381-2
263. Naguib M. Analysis of drug interactions [letter]. Anesth Analg 1995; 81: 424