Placentation in intrauterine growth retardation

Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review

Volumn 9, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 61-71

  Fox, H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FETUS GROWTH; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PLACENTA CIRCULATION; PLACENTA WEIGHT; REVIEW; SMALL FOR DATE INFANT;

EID: 0030876414     PISSN: 09655395     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0965539597000053     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Botella-Llusia J. Über das Syndrom der Plazentarinsuffizienz und seine Bedeutung für die praktische Gebürtshilfe. Deutsch Med 1961; 12: 543-46.
2. Gershon R, Strauss L. Structural changes in human placentas associated with fetal inanition or growth arrest ('placental insufficiency syndrome'). Am J Dis Child 1961; 102: 645-46.
3. Gruenwald P. Abnormalities of placental vascularity in relation to intrauterine deprivation and retardation of fetal growth: significance of avascular chorionic villi. NY State J Med 1961; 61: 1508-13.
4. Gruenwald P. Chronic fetal distress and placental insufficiency. Biol Neonat 1963; 5: 215-65.
5. Rumbolz WL, Edwards MC, McGoogan LS. The small full term infant and placental insufficiency. Western J Surg 1961; 69: 53-61.
6. Kubil F, Budliger H. Beitrag zur Morphologie der insuffizienten Placenta. Gebürts Frauenheil 1963; 23: 37-43.
7. Wigglesworth JS. Morphological variations in the insufficient placenta. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Cwlth 1964; 71: 871-84.
8. Bazso J, Gaal J. Histologische Untersuchungen der Plazenta bei im intrauterinen Wachstum zurückgebliebenen Neugeborenen. Zentralb Gynäk 1965; 87: 1356-66.
9. Tremblay PC, Sybulski S, Maughan BG. Role of the placenta in fetal malnutrition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1965; 91: 597-605.
10. Wilkin P. (1965) Pathologie du placenta Paris: Masson et Cie, 1965.
11. Wong TC, Latour JPA. Microscopic measurement of the placental components in an attempt to assess malnourished newborn infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1966; 94: 942-50.
12. Schuhmann R. Hypotrophes reifes Kind am Termin aus placentarer Ursache (sogenannter placentarer Zwerg). Beitr pathol Anat allg Pathol 1969; 138: 426-35.
13. Younoszai MK, Haworth JC. Placental dimensions and relations in preterm, term and growth retarded infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969; 103: 265-71.
14. Schrodt U. Morphometrische Untersuchungen der Placenta bei dystrophen Neuegeborenen. Zentralb Gynäk 1970; 92: 671-73.
15. Emmrich P, Lassker G. Morphologische Plazentabefunde in Abhangigkeit vom Grad der intrauterinen Wachstumsretardierung bei Mangelgebürten. Kind Praxis 1970; 38: 537-39.
16. Emmrich P, Lassker G. Morphologische Plazentabefunde bei Neugeborenen mit intrauteriner Mangelentwicklung. Pathol Microbiol 1971; 37: 57-72.
17. Busch W. Die Placenta bei der fetalen Mangelentwicklung. Makroskopie and Mikroskopie von 150 Placenten fetaler Mangelentwicklungen. Arch Gynäkol 1972; 212: 333-57.
18. Schuhmann R, Lehmann WD, Geier G. Beziehungen zwischen Plazentamorphologie und Östrogenwerten im letzten Schwangerschaftsmonen: ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der insuffizienten Plazenta. Z Gebürt Perinatol 1972; 176: 379-90.
19. Scott JM, Jordan JM. Placental insufficiency and the small-for-dates baby. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972; 113: 823-32.
20. Bender HG, Werner C, Kortmann HR, Becker V. Zue Endangitisobliterans der Plazentagefasse. Arch Gynäkol 1974; 221: 145-59.
21. Koenig UD, Paulussen F, Hansmann M. Placentamorphologie und intrauterine Wachstummretardierung. Arch Gynäkol 1975; 219: 377-78.
22. Altshuler G, Russell P, Ermocilla R. The placental pathology of small-for-gestational-age infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1975; 121: 351-59.
23. Spaczynski M, Pisarki T, Glyda A. Zmiany morfologiczne w plytach podstawowych lozysk od plodow z niska waga urodzeniowa. (Morphological changes in the basal plates of placenta in deliveries of low weight fetuses.) Ginekol Pol 1976; 41: 721-26.
24. Driscoll SG. Placental lesions. Clin Perinatol 1979; 6: 397-402.
25. Garcia AGP. Placental morphology of low-birthweight infants born at term: gross and microscopic study of 50 cases. Contrib Gynecol Obstet 1982; 9: 100-12.
26. Rayburn W, Sander C, Compton A. Histologic examination of the placenta in the growth-retarded fetus. Am J Perinatol 1989; 6: 58-61.
27. Liu QX. Pathology of the placenta from small for gestational age infants. Chinese J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 25: 331-34.
28. Salafia CM, Vintzileos AM, Silberman L, Bantham KF, Vogel CA. Placental pathology of idiopathic intrauterine growth retardation at term. Am J Perinatol 1992; 9: 179-84.
29. Lister UM. Placental ultrastructure in dysmaturity. In: Pecile A, Finzi C eds. The foeto-placental unit. Amsterdam, Excepta Medica, 1969: 8-17.
30. Theuring F, Kemnitz P. Electronenmikroskopische Plazentabefunde bei fetaler Wachstumretardierung. Zentralb allg Pathol 1974; 118: 82-89.
31. Sandstedt B. The placenta and low birthweight. Curr Top Pathol 1979; 66: 1-55.
32. Sheppard B, Bonnar J. Ultrastructural abnormalities of placental villi in placentae from pregnancies complicated by intrauterine fetal growth retardation: their relationship to decidual spiral arterial lesions. Placenta 1980; 1: 145-56.
33. Van der Veen F, Fox H. The human placenta in idiopathic intrauterine growth retardation: a light and electron microscopic study. Placenta 1983; 4: 65-78.
34. Macara L, Kingdom JCP, Kaufmann P, Kohnen G, Hair J, More IA. Structural analysis of placental terminal villi from growth-restricted pregnancies with abnormal ubilical artery Doppler waveforms. Placenta 1996; 17: 37-48.
35. Aherne W, Dunnill MS. Quantitative aspects of placental structure. J Pathol Bacteriol 1966; 91: 123-39.
36. Clavero-Nunez JA, Negueruela J, Botella-Llusia J. Placental morphometry and placental circulometry. J Reprod Med 1971; 6: 23-37.
37. Teasdale F. Idiopathic intrauterine growth retardation: histomorphometry of the human placenta. Placenta 1984; 5: 83-92.
38. Boyd PA, Scott A. Quantitative structural studies on human placentae associated with pre-eclampsia, essential hypertension and intrauterine growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 714-21.
39. Li BZ. The stereological study on normal and intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) placentae. Chinese J Pathol 1992; 21: 227-28.
40. Shen Y. Stereological study of the placentae in intrauterine growth retardation with different pondéral index. Chinese J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 27: 351-54.
41. Karsdorp VHM, Dirks BK, van der Linden JC, van Vugt JMG, Baak JPA, van Geijn HP. Placenta morphology and absent or reversed end diastolic flow velocities in the umbilical artery: a clinical and morphological study. Placenta 1996; 17: 393-99.
42. nd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. 1997.
43. Robinson JS, Kingston EJ, Jones CT, Thornburn GD. Studies on experimental growth retardation in sheep: the effect of removal of endometrial caruncles on fetal size and metabolism. J Dev Physiol 1979; 1: 379-98.
44. Lorijn RHW, Longo LD. Clinical and physiologic implications of increased fetal oxygen consumption. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 136: 451-57.
45. Charlton V, Johengen M. Fetal intravenous nutritional supplementation ameliorates the development of embolized induced growth retardation in sheep. Ped Res 1988; 22: 55-61.
46. Kruger H, Arias-Stella J. The placenta and the new born infant at high altitudes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1970; 106: 586-91.
47. Beischer NA, Sivasamboo R, Vohra S, Silpisornkosal S, Reid S. Placental hypertrophy in severe pregnancy anaemia. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Cwlth 1970; 77: 398-409.
48. Agboola A. Placental changes in patients with a low haematocrit. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975; 82: 225-27.
49. Godfrey KM, Redman CWG, Barker DJP, Osmond C. The effect of maternal anaemia and iron deficiency on the ratio of fetal weight to placental weight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 98: 886-91.
50. Calvero-Nunez JA. La placenta de las cardiacas. Rev Esp Obstet Ginecol 1963; 22: 129-34.
51. Robinson JS, Owens J. The placenta and intrauterine growth retardation. In: Redman CWG, Sargent IL, Starkey PM eds. The human placenta. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1993; 558-78.
52. Gruenwald P. The supply line of the fetus: definitions relating to fetal growth. In: Gruenwald P ed. The placenta and its maternal supply line. Lancaster: Medical and Technical Publishing, 1975: 1-17.
53. Fox H, Sen DK. Placenta extrachorialis: a clinicopathological study. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Cwlth 1972; 79: 32-35.
54. Rolschau J. Circumvallate placenta and intrauterine growth retardation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1978; 72: 11-14.
55. Bjoro KJ. Gross pathology of the placenta in intrauterine growth retardation. Ann Chir Gynecol Fenn 1981; 70: 316-22.
56. Suska P, Vierik J, Handzo I, Krizko M. Vyskyt makroskopickych zmien placent u intrauterinne rastovo retardovanych novorodencov (Incidence of macroscopic changes in the placenta in intrauterine growth retardation in neonates). Brat Lek Listy 1989; 90: 604-607.
57. Laurini R, Laurin J, Maršal K. Placental histology and fetal blood flow in intrauterine growth retardation. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994; 73: 529-34.
58. Becker V. Patholigie des Ausreifung der Plazenta. In: Becker V, Shiebler T, Kubli F eds. Die Plazenta der Menschen. Stuttgart: Thieme, 1981: 266-81.
59. Schweikhart G, Kaufmann P. Endzottenmangel und klinische Relevanz. Gynäkol Rundsch 1987; 27: 147-48.
60. Altshuler G, Russell P. The human placental villitides: a review of chronic intrauterine infection. Curr Top Pathol 1975; 60: 63-112.
61. Russell P. Inflammatory lesions of the human placenta. II Villitis of unknown etiology in perspective. Am J Diag Gynecol Obstet 1979; 1: 339-46.
62. Knox WF, Fox H. Villitis of unknown aetiology: its incidence and significance in placentae from a British population. Placenta 1984; 5: 395-402.
63. Bjoro KJ, Myhre E. The role of chronic non-specific inflammatory lesions of the placenta in intrauterine growth retardation. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand 1984; 92: 133-37.
64. Mortimer G, MacDonald DJ, Smeeth A. A pilot study of the incidence and significance of placental villitis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 629-33.
65. Nordenvall M, Sandstedt B. Placental villitis and intrauterine growth retardation in a Swedish population. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand 1990; 98: 19-24.
66. Khong TY, Staples A, Moore L, Byard RW. Observer reliability in assessing villitis of unknown aetiology. J Clin Pathol 1993; 46: 208-10.
67. Labarrere C, Althabe O, Telenta M. Chronic villitis of unknown aetiology in placentae of idiopathic small for gestational age infants. Placenta 1982; 3: 309-18.
68. Labarrere C, Althabe O, Calenti E, Musculo D. Deficiency of blocking factors in intrauterine growth retardation and its relationship with chronic villitis. Am J Reprod Immunol Microbiol 1986; 10: 14-19.
69. Althabe O, Labarrere C. Chronic villitis of unknown aetiology and intrauterine growth-retarded infants of normal and low ponderal index. Placenta 1985; 6: 369-73.
70. Fox H. The placenta and infection. In: Redman CWG, Sargent IL, Starkey PM eds. The human placenta. London: Blackwell, 1993: 313-33.
71. Sachdev R, Nuovo GJ, Kaplan C, Greco MA. In situ hybridization analysis for cytomegalovirus in chronic villitis. Paediatr Pathol 1990; 10: 909-17.
72. Nakamura Y, Sakuma S, Ohta Y, Kawano K, Hashimoto T. Detection of the human cytomegalovirus gene in placental chronic villitis by polymerase chain reaction. Hum Pathol 1994; 25: 815-18.
73. Redline RW, Abramowsky CR. Clinical and pathologic aspects of recurrent placental villitis. Hum Pathol 1986; 16: 727-31.
74. Labarrere CA, McIntyre JA, Faulk WP. Immunohistologic evidence that villitis in human normal term placentas is an immunologic lesion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 162: 515-22.
75. Redline RW. Placental pathology: a neglected link between basic disease mechanisms and untoward pregnancy outcome. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1995; 7: 10-15.
76. Jones CJP, Fox H. An ultrastructural and ultrahistochemical study of the human placenta in maternal pre-eclampsia. Placenta 1980; 1: 61-76.
77. Fox H. Effects of hypoxia on trophoblast in organ culture. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1970; 107: 1058-64.
78. MacLennan AH, Sharp F, Shaw-Dunn J. The ultrastructure of human trophoblast in spontaneous and induced hypoxia using a system of organ culture. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Cwlth 1972; 79: 113-21.
79. Chatfield WR, Rogers TGH, Brownlee BEW, Rippon PE. Placental scanning with computer-linked gamma camera to detect impaired placental blood flow and intrauterine growth retardation. Br Med J 1975; 2: 120-22.
80. Lunnell NO, Sarby B, Lewander R et al. Comparison of uteroplacental blood flow in normal and in intrauterine growth-retarded pregnancy. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1979; 10: 106-18.
81. Trudinger BJ, Giles WB, Cook CM. Uteroplacental blood flow velocity-time waveforms in normal and complicated pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 39-45.
82. Trudinger BJ, Giles WB, Cook CM. Flow velocity waveforms in the maternal uteroplacental and fetal umbilical placental circulations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985; 152: 155-63.
83. McCowan LM, Ritchie K, Mo LY, Bascom PA, Sherret H. Uterine artery flow velocity waveforms in normal and growth retarded pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158: 499-504.
84. Jacobson S-L, Imhof R, Manning M, Mannion V, Little D, Rey E et al. The value of Doppler assessment of the uteroplacental circulation in predicting preeclampsia or intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 162: 110-14.
85. Bewley SM, Cooper D, Campbell S. Doppler investigation of uteroplacental blood flow resistance in the second trimester: a screening study for pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 98: 871-79.
86. Schulman H. Uteroplacental flow velocity. In: Chervenak FA, Isaacson GC, Campbell S eds, Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. Boston: Little Brown, 1993: 569-77.
87. Iwata M, Matsuzaki N, Shimizu I, Mitsuda N, Nakayama M, Suehara N. Prenatal detection of ischemic changes in the placenta of the growth-retarded fetus by Doppler flow velocimetry of the maternal uterine artery. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82: 494-99.
88. Ferrazzi E, Barbera A, Bulfamante G, Moneghini L, Pavesi A. Ischemia haemorrhagic placental damage and vascular lesions is associated with abnormal uteroplacental Doppler waveform in growth retarded fetuses. J Perinat Med 1994; 22 (supplement 1): 73-78.
89. Brosens I, Robertson WB, Dixon HG. The physiological response of the vessels of the placental bed to normal pregnancy. J Pathol Microbiol 1967; 93: 569-79.
90. De Wolf F, De Wolf-Peeters C, Brosens I, Robertson WB. The human placental bed: electron microscopic study of trophoblastic invasion of spiral arteries. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 137: 58-70.
91. Gerretsen G, Huisjes HJ, Hardouk MJ, Elema JD. Trophoblast alterations in the placental bed in relation to physiological changes in spiral arteries. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983; 90: 34-39.
92. Pijnenborg R, Dixon HG, Robertson WB, Brosens I. Trophoblastic invasion of human decidua from 8 to 18 weeks of pregnancy. Placenta 1980; 1: 3-19.
93. Pijnenborg R, Bland JM, Robertson WB, Brosens I. Uteroplacental arterial changes related to interstitial trophoblast migration in early human pregnancy. Placenta 1983; 4: 397-14.
94. Pijnenborg R, Anthony J, Davey DA, Rees A, Tiltman A, Vercruysse L et al. Placental bed spiral arteries in the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 98: 649-55.
95. Brosens I, Robertson WB, Dixon HG. The role of the spiral arteries in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. In: Wynn RM ed, Obstetrics and gynecology annual, 1 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 1972: 177-91.
96. Robertson WB, Brosens I, Dixon HG. Uteroplacental vascular pathology. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1975; 5: 47-65.
97. Robertson WB. Uteroplacental vasculature. J Clin Pathol 1976; Suppl 10: 9-17.
98. Sheppard BL, Bonnar J. The ultrastructure of the arterial supply of the human placenta in pregnancy complicated by fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1976; 83: 948-59.
99. Brosens I, Dixon HG, Robertson WB. Fetal growth retardation and the vasculature of the placental bed. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1977; 84: 656-64.
100. Sheppard B, Bonnar J. An ultrastructural study of uteroplacental spiral arteries in hypertensive and normotensive pregnancy and fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981; 88: 695-705.
101. Robertson WB, Brosens I, Dixon HG. Maternal blood supply in fetal growth retardation. In: van Assche A, Robertson WB eds, Fetal growth retardation. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1981: 126-38.
102. Gerretsen G, Huisjes HJ, Elema JD. Morphological changes of the spiral arteries in the placental bed in relation to preeclampsia and fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981; 88: 876-81.
103. Hustin J, Foidart JM, Lambotte R. Maternal vascular lesions in pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation: light microscopy and immunofluorescence. Placenta 1983; 4: 489-98.
104. Khong TY, DeWolf F, Robertson WB, Brosens I. Inadequate maternal vascular response to placentation in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and by small-for-gestational-age infants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 93: 1049-59.
105. Robertson WB, Khong TY, Brosens I, DeWolf F, Sheppard BL, Bonnar J. The placental bed biopsy: review from three European centers. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986; 155: 401-12.
106. Khong TY, Robertson WB. Spiral artery disease. In: Coulam CB, Faulk WP, McIntyre JA eds, Immunological obstetrics. New York: Norton, 492-501.
107. Lin S, Shimizu I, Suehara N, Nakayama M, Aono T. Uterine artery Doppler velocimetry in relation to trophoblast migration into the myometrium of the placental bed. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 85: 760-65.
108. Clapp JF. Physiological adaptation to intrauterine growth retardation. In: Ward RHT, Smith SK, Donnai D eds, Early fetal growth and development. London: RCOG Press, 1994: 371-83.
109. DeWolf F, Brosens I, Renaer M. Fetal growth retardation and the maternal arterial supply of the human placenta in the absence of sustained hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1980; 87: 678-85.
110. Althabe O, Laberrere C, Telenta M. Maternal vascular lesions in placentae of small-for-gestational-age infants. Placenta 1985; 6: 369-73.
111. Khong TY. Acute atherosis in pregnancies complicated by hypertension, small-for-gestational-age infants and diabetes mellitus. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1991; 115: 722-25.
112. McFadyen IR, Price AB, Geirsson RT. The relation of birthweight to histological appearances in vessels of the placental bed. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 93: 47-51.
113. Frusca T, Morassi L, Pecorelli S, Grigolata P, Gastaldi A. Histological features of uteroplacental vessels in normal and hypertensive patients in relation to birthweight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 96: 835-39.
114. Labarrere C, Alonso J, Manni J, Domenichini E, Althabe O. Immunohistochemical findings in acute atherosis associated with intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Reprod Immunol Microbiol 1985; 7: 149-55.
115. Labarrere C. Acute atherosis: a histopathological hallmark of immune aggression? Placenta 1988; 9: 95-108.
116. Trudinger BJ, Giles WB, Cook CM, Bombardieri J, Collins L. Fetal umbilical artery flow velocity waveforms and placental resistance: clinical significance. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 23-30.
117. McCowan LM, Mullen BM, Ritchie K. Umbilical artery flow velocity waveforms and the placental vascular bed. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 900-902.
118. Gudmundsson S, Maršal K. Umbilical and uteroplacental blood flow velocity waveforms in pregnancies with fetal growth retardation. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1988; 27: 187-96.
119. Bracero LA, Beneck D, Kirshenbaum N, Peiffer M, Stalter P, Schulman H. Doppler velocimetry and placental disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 388-93.
120. Ritchie JWK. Use of Doppler technology in assessing fetal health. J Dev Physiol 1991; 15: 121-23.
121. Zacutti A, Borruto F, Bottacci G, Giannoni ML, Manzin A, Pallini M. Umbilical blood flow and placental pathology. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 1992; 19: 63-69.
122. Hitschold T, Weiss E, Beck T, Hunterfering H, Berle P. Low target birthweight or growth retardation? Umbilical Doppler flow velocity waveforms and histometric analysis of the fetoplacental vascular tree. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 1260-64.
123. Gill RW, Warren PS, Garrett WJ, Kossoff G, Stewart A. Umbilical vein blood flow. In: Chervenak FA, Isaacson GC, Campbell S eds, Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology. Boston: Little Brown, 1993: 587-95.
124. Giles WB, Trudinger BJ, Baird PJ. Fetal umbilical artery flow velocity waveforms and placental resistance: pathological correlation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985; 92: 31-38.
125. Fok RY, Pavlova Z, Benirschke K, Paul RH, Platt TD. The correlation of arterial lesions with umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry in the placentas of small-for-dates pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1990; 75: 578-83.
126. Macara L, Kingdom JCP, Kohnen G, Bowman AW, Greer IA, Kaufman P. Elaboration of stem villous vessels in growth restricted pregnancies with abnormal umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995; 102: 807-12.
127. Jackson MR, Walsh AJ, Morrow RJ, Mullen JB, Lye SJ, Ritchie JWK. Reduced placental villous tree elaboration in small-for-gestational-age newborn pregnancies: relationship with umbilical artery Doppler waveforms. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 518-25.
128. Kreczy A, Fusi L, Wigglesworth JS. Correlation between umbilical arterial flow and placental morphology. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1995; 14: 306-309.
129. Koenig UD. Proliferative Gefassveranderungen der kindlichen Plazentargefasse und ihre Beziehung zur Plazentarinsuffizienz und Fruhgeburt. Zeitschr Gebürtsh Perinatol 1972; 176: 356-64.
130. Koenig UD, Mersmann B, Haupt H. Proliferative plazentare Gefassveranderungen: Schwangerschaft und perinateler Verlauf beim Kind. Zeitschr Gebürtsh Perinatol 1973; 177: 58-64.
131. Stock MK, Anderson DF, Phernetton TM, McLaughlin MK, Rankin JHG. Vascular response of the fetal placenta to local occlusion of the maternal placental vasculature. J Develop Physiol 1980; 2: 339-46.
132. Istkovitz J, LaGamma EF, Rudolph AM. The effect of reducing umbilical blood flow on fetal oxygenation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 145: 813-18.
133. Bilardo CM, Snijders RM, Campbell S, Nicolaides K. Doppler study of the fetal circulation during long-term maternal hyperoxygenation for severe early onset intrauterine growth retardation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1991; 1: 250-57.
134. de Rochembeau B, Poix D, Mellier G. Maternal hyperoxygenation: a fetal blood flow velocity prognosis test in small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1992; 2: 279-82.
135. Kalousek DK, Dill FJ, Pantzar D, McGillivray BC, Yong SL, Wilson RD. Confined chorionic mosaicism in prenatal diagnosis. Hum Genet 1987; 77: 163-67.
136. Kalousek DK. Confined placental mosaicism and intrauterine development. Ped Pathol 1990; 10: 69-77.
137. Post JG, Nijhuis JG. Trisomy 16 confined to the placenta. Prenat Diagn 1992; 12: 1001-1007.
138. Wolstenholme J, Rooney DE, Davison EV. Confined placental mosaicism, IUGR and adverse pregnancy outcome: a controlled retrospective UK collaborative study. Prenat Diagn 1994; 14: 345-61.
139. Kalousek DK, Langlois S. The effects of placental and somatic chromosomal mosaicism on fetal growth. In: Ward RHT, Smith SK, Donnai D. eds. Early fetal growth and development. London: RCOG Press, 1994: 246-56.
140. Kalousek DK. Current topic: confined placental mosaicism and intrauterine fetal development. Placenta 1994; 15: 219-30.
141. Wilkins-Haug L, Roberts DJ, Morton CC. Confined placental mosaicism and intrauterine growth retardation: a case control analysis of placentas at delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 44-50.
142. Schwinger E, Seidl E, Klink F, Rehder H. Chromosome mosaicism of the placenta - a cause of developmental failure of the fetus? Prenat Diagn 1989; 9: 639-47.
143. Kennerknecht I, Kramer S, Grab D, Terinde R, Vogel W. A prospective cytogenetic study of third-trimester placentae in small-for-dates but otherwise normal newborns. Prenat Diagn 1993; 13: 257-69.
144. Roland B, Lynch L, Berkowitz G, Zinberg R. Confined placental mosaicism in CVS and pregnancy outcome. Prenat Diagn 1994; 14: 589-93.
145. Carter AM. Current topic: restriction of placental and fetal growth in the guinea-pig. Placenta 1993; 14: 125-35.
146. King A, Loke YW. Unexplained fetal growth retardation: what is the cause? Arch Dis Child 1994; 70: F225-F227.
147. Hustin J, Jauniaux E. Morphology and mechanisms of abortion. In: Barnea ER, Hustin J, Jauniaux E. eds. The first twelve weeks of gestation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992: 280-96.
148. Barker JDP. Fetal growth and adult disease. In: Ward RHT, Smith SK, Donnai D. eds. Early fetal growth and development. London: RCOG Press, 1994: 197-209.