Non-tuberculous mycobacterial skin infections

Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 1-35

  Hautmann, Giuseppe ^a   Katsambas, Andreas ^b   Lotti, Torello ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Infection; Microbiology; Mycobacteria; Skin; Therapy

Indexed keywords

ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL AGENT; ETHAMBUTOL; ISONIAZID; RIFAMPICIN; STREPTOMYCIN;

CELLULITIS; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; MYCOBACTERIOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RASH; REVIEW; SKIN ABSCESS; SKIN FISTULA; SKIN INFECTION; SKIN NODULE; SKIN ULCER;

EID: 0030854814     PISSN: 09269959     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.1997.tb00224.x     Document Type: Review

References (255)

1. Schuster M. Mycobacterial disease: a historical and epidemiologic perspective. Clinics Dermatol 1995;13:191.
2. Pitchenik AE, Fertel D. Tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Med Clin North Am 1992;76:121-171.
3. Benson CA, Ellner JJ. Mycobacterium avium complex infection and AIDS: advances in theory and practice. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:7-20.
4. Portaels F. Le SIDA et les mycobactéries atypiques. Ann Soc Belg Méd Trop 1987;67:93-116.
5. Benson CA. Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium complex disease in patients with HIV infection. Curr Opin Infect Dis 1994;7:95-107.
6. Noordeen SK. Leprosy 1962-1992. 4. Epidemiology and control of leprosy - a review of progress over the last 30 years. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993;87:515-517.
7. Blake LA, West BC, Lary CH, Todd JR. IV. Environmental nonhuman sources of leprosy. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9:562-577.
8. Savin JA, Wilkinson DS. Mycobacterial infections including tuberculosis. In: Rook A., Wilkinson DS, Ebling FJG, et al. eds. Textbook of dermatology. 4th Edn., Oxford: Blackwell, 1986;791-822.
9. Wolff K, Tappeiner G. Mycobacterial diseases: tuberculosis and atypical mycobacterial infections. In: Fitzpatrick TB, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al. eds. Dermatology in General Medicine. 3rd Edn. New York: McGraw Hill, 1987;2152-2180.
10. Grange JM. Mycobacterial diseases. London: Edward Arnold, 1980.
11. Runyon EH. Anonymous mycobacteria in pulmonary disease. Med Clin North Am 1959;43:273-278.
12. Lotti T, Hautmann G. Atypical mycobacterial infections: a difficult and emerging group of infectious dermatoses. Int J Dermatol 1993;32:499-501.
13. Pierard GE, Boudghene-Stambouli O, Mélotte P, et al. Mycobacterioses atypiques. In: Pierard GE, Caumes E, Franchimont C, et al. eds. Dermatologie Tropicale. Bruxelles: Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 1993;209-212.
14. Crow HE, King CT, Smith E, et al. A limited clinical, pathologic and epidemiologic study of patients with pulmonary lesions associated with atypical acid-fast bacilli in the sputum. Am Rev Tuberc 1957;75:199-222.
15. Lewis AG, Lasche EM, Armstrong AL, et al. A clinical study of the chronic lung disease due to nonphotochromogenic acid-fast bacilli. Ann Intern Med 1960;53:273-285.
16. Wallace Jr RJ, O'Brien R, Glassroth J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:940-953.
17. Street ML, Umbert-Millet IJ, Roberts GD, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infections of the skin. J Am Acad Derm 1991;24:208-215.
18. Savin JA. Mycobacterial infections. In: Rook A. Wilkinson DS, Ebling FJG, et al. eds. Textbook of Dermatology. 4th Edn. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990;1033-1063.
19. Graft H, Falkinham JO, Parker BC. Recent experience in the epidemiology of disease caused by atypical mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3:990-996.
20. Meissner PS, Falkinham JO. Plasmid DNA profiles as epidemiologic markers for clinical and environmental isolates of M. avium, M. intracellulare and M. scrofulaceum. J Infect Dis 1986;153:325-331.
21. American Thoracic Society. Levels of laboratory services for mycobacterial disease. Official Statement of the American Thoracic Society. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983;128:213.
22. Huebner RE, Good RC, Tokars JI. Current practices in mycobacteriology: results of a survey of state public health laboratories. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:771-775.
23. Kent PT, Kubica GP. Public Health Mycobacteriology: A Guide for the Level III Laboratory. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control, PHS, HHS, 1985.
24. Centers for Disease Control and National Institutes of Health. Richardson JE, Barkely WE, eds. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. 2nd Edn. HHS Publication No. (NIH) 88-8395. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1988.
25. Eisenstadt J, Hall GS. Microbiology and classification of mycobacteria. Clinics Dermatol 1995;13:197-204.
26. Allen BW, Darrel JH. Contamination of specimen container surfaces during collection. J Clin Pathol 1983;36:479-481.
27. Kiehn TE. The diagnostic mycobacteriology laboratory of the 1990s. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(Suppl 2):S447-454.
28. Burdash NM, Manos JP, Ross D, et al. Evaluation of the acid-fast smear. J Clin Microbiol 1976;4:190-191.
29. Joseph SW, Vaichulis E, Houk VN. Lack of auramine rhodamine fluorescence of Runyon group IV mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969;95:114-115.
30. Portaels F. Epidemiology of mycobacterial diseases. Clinics Dermatol 1995;13:207-221.
31. Wendt SL, George KL, Parker BC, et al. Epidemiology of infection by nontuberculous mycobacteria. III. Isolation of potentially pathogenic mycobacteria from aerosols. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980;122:259-263.
32. Wolinsky E, Rynearson TK. Mycobacteria in soil and their relation to disease-associated strains. Am Rev Respir Dis 1968;97:1032-1037.
33. Steadman JE. High-catalase strains of Mycobacterium kansasii isolated from water in Texas. J Clin Microbiol 1980;11:496-498.
34. Hoffman PC, Fraser DW, Robicsek F, et al. Two outbreaks of sternal wound infections due to organisms of the Mycobacterium fortuitum complex. J Infect Dis 1981;143:533-542.
35. Lowry PW, Jarvis WR, Oberle AD, et al. Mycobacterium chelonae causing otitis media in an ear-nose-and-throat practice. N Engl J Med 1988;319:978-982.
36. Bolan G, Reingold AL, Carson LA, et al. Infection with mycobacterium chelonae in patients receiving dialysis and using preocessed hemodialyzers. J Infect Dis 1985;152:1013-1019.
37. Safraneck TJ, Jarvis WR, Carson LA, et al. Mycobacterium chelonae wound infections after plastic surgery employing contamined gentian violet skin-marking solution. N Engl J Med 1987;317:197-201.
38. Mon T. Acid-fast bacilli detected in umbilical codes and skins of human at cases of surgical operation. Nippon Rai Gakkai Zasshi 1990;59:98-112.
39. Hautmann G, Lotti T. Atypical mycobacterial infection of the skin. Dermatol Clin 1994;12:657-668.
40. Runyon EH. Pathogenic mycobacteria. Adv Tuberc Res 1965;14:235.
41. Collins CH, Grange JM, Noble WC, Yates MD. Mycobacterium marinum infections in man. J Hyg Camb 1985;94:135-139.
42. Gluckman SJ. Mycobacterium marinum. Clinics Dermatol 1995;13:273-276.
43. Marmelzat WL. Laennec and the 'prosector's wart'. Arch Dermatol 1962;86:74.
44. Wolinsky E. Mycobacterial diseases other than tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 1992;15:1-12.
45. Aronson JD. Spontaneous tuberculosis in salt water fish. Infect Dis 1926;39:315-320.
46. Baker JA, Hagan WA. Tuberculosis of Mexican platyfish (Platypoecilus maculatus). J Infect Dis 1942;70:248-252.
47. Linell F, Norden A. M. balnei: new acid-fast bacillus occurring in swimming pools and capable of producing skin lesions in humans. Acta Tuberc Scand 1954;33(Suppl):1-84.
48. Mollohan CS, Romer MS. Public health significance of swimming pool granuloma. Am J Publ Health 1961; 51:883-891.
49. Reznikov M. Atypical mycobacteria. Their classification and aetiological significance. Med J Aust 1970;1:553-560.
50. Swift S, Cohen H. Granulomas of the skin due to Mycobacterium balnei after abrasions from a fish tank. N Engl J Med 1962;304:1244-1246.
51. Walker HH, Shinn MF, Higaki M, Ogata J. Some characteristics of 'swimming pool' disease in Hawaii. Hawaiian Med J 1962;21:403-409.
52. Flowers DJ. Human infection due to Mycobacterium marinum after a dolphin bite. J Clin Pediatr 1970;23:475-477.
53. Zeligman I. Mycobacterium marinum granuloma. A disease acquired in the tributaries of Chesapeake bay. Arch Dermatol 1972;106:26-31.
54. Lewis AG, Lasche EM, Armstrong AL, et al. A clinical study of the chronic lung disease due to nonphotochromogenic acid-fast bacilli. Ann Intern Med 1960;53:273-285.
55. Gil-Ybarra N, Gardeazabal J, Zubizarreta J, et al. Swimming pool granuloma: study of three cases. In: Panconesi E. ed. Dermatology in Europe, London: Blackwell, 1991;667-668.
56. Zukervar P, Canillot S, Gayrard L, et al. Infection sporotrichoide a M. marinum chez un sujet porteur du virus de l'immunodeficience humaine. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1991;118:111-113.
57. El Baze P, Ortonne JP. Les infections et les dermatoses acquises dans les piscines. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1991;118:973-977.
58. Borradori L, Baudraz-Rosselet F, Beer V, et al. Granulomes à M. marinum chez un acquariophile. Schweiz Med Wschr 1991;121:1340-1344.
59. Gray SF, Stanwell Smith R, Reynolds NJ. Fish tank granuloma. Br Med J 1990;300:1069-1070.
60. Dompmartin A, Loner E, DeRaucourt S, et al. Mycobacteriose àM. marinum dans sa forme sporotrichoide chez une patiente greffèe renale sous ciclosporine. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1991;118:377-379.
61. Kullavanijaya P, Sirimachan S, Bhuddhavudhikrai P. Mycobacterium marinum cutaneous infections acquired from occupations and hobbies. Int J Dermatol 1993;32:504-507.
62. Bonafé JL, Grigorieff-Larrue N, Bauriaud R. Les mycobacterioses cutanees atypiques. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1992;119:463-470.
63. Arai H, Nakajima H, Kaminaga Y. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium marinum to dihydromycoplanecine A and ten other antimicrobial agents. J Dermatol 1990;17:370-376.
64. Feldman RA, Long MW, David HL. Mycobacterium marinum: a leisure time pathogen. J Infect Dis 1974;129:618-621.
65. Amerio P, Carmenin S, DeMori F, et al. Micobatteriosi atipica da Mycobacterium marinum. G Ital Dermatol Venereol 1990;125:147-149.
66. Iredell J, Whitby M, Blacklock Z. Mycobacterium marinum infection: epidemiology and presentation in Queensland 1971-1990. Med J Aust 1992;157:596-598.
67. Philpott JA, Woodburne AR, Philpott OS, et al. Swimming pool granuloma. Arch Dermatol 1963;88:94-98.
68. Jolly HW, Seabury JH. Infections with Mycobacterium marinum. Arch Dermatol 1972;106:32-36.
69. Hautmann G, Lotti T. Usual and unusual features of atypical mycobacterial infections of the skin. Afr J Dermatol, 1995;8:78-93.
70. Sahm DF, Zang K, Lloyd J, Revis P. Mycobacterium marinum infection confused with sporotrichosis. Clin Microbiol News 1985;7(10):72-73.
71. Adams RM, Remington JS, Steinberg J, Seibert JS. Tropical fish aquariums. A source of Mycobacterium marinum infections resembling sporotrichosis. J Am Med Assoc 1970;211:457-461.
72. Dickey RF. Sporotrichoid mycobacteriosis caused by M. marinum (balnei). Arch Dermatol 1968;98:385-391.
73. Brown J, Kelm M, Dryan LE. Infection of the skin by Mycobacterium marinum: report of five cases. Can Med Assoc J 1977;117:912-914.
74. Grosset J, Sors C. Les mycobacterioses. Press Med 1984;13:215-218.
75. Gombert ME, Goldstein EJC, Corrado ML, et al. Disseminated M. marinum infection after renal transplantation. Ann Intern Med 1981;94:486-487.
76. Loria PR. Minocycline hydrochloride treatment for atypical acid-fast bacilli. Arch Dermatol 1976;112:517-519.
77. Clark RB, Spector H, Friedman DM, et al. Osteomyelitis and synovitis produced by Mycobacterium marinum in a fisherman. J Clin Microbiol 1990;11:2570-2572.
78. Chow SP, Ip FK, Lau JHK, et al. Mycobacterium marinum infection of the hand and wrist. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1987;69:1161-1168.
79. Travis WD, Travis LB, Roberts GD, et al. The histopathologic spectrum in Mycobacterium marinum infection. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1985;109:1109-1113.
80. Williams CS, Riordan DC. Mycobacterium marinum (atypical acid fast bacillus) infections of the hand. A report of six cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1973;55:1042-1050.
81. Sage RE, Derrington AW. Opportunistic cutaneous Mycobacterium marinum infection mimicking Mycobacterium ulcerans in lymphosarcoma. Med J Aust 1973;2:434-437.
82. Ries KM, While CL, Murdock AT. Atypical mycobacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium marinum. N Engl J Med 1990;322:633.
83. Tchornobay AM, Claudy AL, Perrot JL, et al. Fatal disseminated Mycobacterium marinum infection. Int J Dermatol 1992;31:286-287.
84. King A, Fairley J, Rasmussen I. Disseminated cutaneous Mycobacterium marinum infections. Arch Dermatol 1983;119:268-270.
85. Vazquez JA, Sobel JD. A case of disseminated Mycobacterium marinum infection in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1992;11:908-911.
86. Enzenauer RJ, McKoy J, Vincent D, et al. Disseminated cutaneous and synovial Mycobacterium marinum infection in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. South Med J 1990;83:471-474.
87. Kaplan D. Mycobacterium marinum cutaneous infections. Infect Med 1988;5:257-264.
88. Sanders WJ, Wolinsky E. In vitro susceptibility of Mycobacterium marinum to eight antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1980;18:529-531.
89. Donta ST, Smith PW, Levitz RE, Quintillani R. Therapy of Mycobacterium marinum infections: use of tetracyclines vs. rifampin. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:902-904.
90. Bonnet E, Debat-Zoguereh D, Petit N, et al. Clarithromycin: a potent agent against infections due to Mycobacterium marinum. Clin Infect Dis 1994;18:664-666.
91. Gevaudan MJ, Bollet C, Mallet MN, De Micco PH. Intramacrophagic activity of antibiotic combinations against Mycobacterium marinum. Pathol Biol 1991;436-441.
92. Collins CH, Uttley HC. In-vitro activity of seventeen antimicrobial compounds against seven species of mycobacteria. J Antimicrob Chemother 1988;22:857-861.
93. Palmer CE, Long MW. Effects of infection with atypical mycobacteria on BCG vaccination and tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1966;94:553-568.
94. Sanders WE, Horowitz E. Other mycobacterial species. In: Douglas RC, Bennett JE, eds. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1989;1914-1926.
95. Grange JM, Noble WC, Yates MD, Collins CH. Inoculation mycobacterioses. Clin Exp Dermatol 1988;13:211-220.
96. Beyt Jr BE, Ortbals DW, Santa Cruz DJ, et al. Cutaneous mycobacteriosis: analysis of 34 cases with a new classification of the disease. Medicine (Baltimore) 1981;60:95-109.
97. Pang SC. Mycobacterium kansasii infections in Western Australia (1962-1987). Respir Med, 1991;85:213-218.
98. Lillo M, Orengo S, Cernoch P, et al. Pulmonary and disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium kansasii: a decade of experience. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:760-767.
99. Hanke CW, Temofeew RK, Slama SL. M. kansasii infection with multiple cutaneous lesions. J Am Acad Dermatol 1987;16:1122-1128.
100. Dore N, Collins JP, Mankiewicz E. A sporotrichoid-like M. kansasii infection of the skin treated with minocycline hydrochloride. Br J Dermatol 1979;101:75-79.
101. Breathnach A, Levell N, Munro C, et al. Cutaneous Mycobacterium kansasii infection: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:812-817.
102. Stellbrink HJ, Koperski K, Albrecht H, et al. Mycobacterium kansasii infection limited to skin and lymph node in a patient with AIDS. Clin Exp Dermatol 1990;15:457-458.
103. Naher H, Peters B. Mycobacterium kansasii seroma of the skin in HIV infection. Hautarzt 1992;43:361-363.
104. Klotch DW, Owens MH, Wild LM. Mycobacterium kansasii presenting as an unusual type of rinophyma. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1992;107:792-795.
105. Algayres JP, Mayaudon H, Godeau B, et al. Atteinte sous extensive à Mycobacterium kansasii au cours d'une dermatomyosite, Ann Med Intern Paris 1990;141:633-635.
106. Groves RW, Newton JA, Hay RJ. Cutaneous Mycobacterium kansasii infection: treatment with erythromicin. Clin Exp Dermatol 1991;16:300-302.
107. Faust H, Treadwell P. Histoplasma capsulatum in a nonimmunocompromised patient with previously treated cutaneous Mycobacterium kansasii. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:418-422.
108. Iijima M, Sasaky S. Cutaneus atypical mycobacteriosis due to Mycobacterium kansasii: a case report and a review of the literature. Nippon Hifuka Gakkai Zasshi 1990;100:711-720.
109. Mayberry JD, Mullins JF, Stone OJ. Cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium kansasii. J Am Med Assoc 1965; 194:233-235.
110. Chapman IS. The Atypical Mycobacteria and Human Mycobacteriosis. New York: Plenum Press, 1977;200.
111. Callahan EF, Licata AL, Madison JF. Cutaneous mycobacterium infection associated with papulonecrotic tuberculid reaction. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997;36:497-499.
112. Hobby GL, Redmond WB, Runyon EH, et al. A study of pulmonary disease associated with mycobacteria other than M. tuberculosis; identification and characterization of the mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1967;95:954-971.
113. Pezzia W, Raleigh JW, Bailey MC, et al. Treatment of pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium kansasii: recent experience with rifampin. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3:1035-1039.
114. Ahn CH, Lowell JR, Ahn SA, et al. Chemotherapy for pulmonary disease due to Mycobacterium kansasii: efficacies of some individual drugs. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3:1028-1034.
115. Snider DE, Hopewell PC, Millis J, et al. Mycobacteriosis and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;136:492-496.
116. Kirschner Jr RA, Parker BC, Falkinham JO. Epidemiology of infection by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulalre, Mycobacterium scrofulaceum in acid, brown-water swamps of the southeastern United States and their association with environmental variables. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:271-275.
117. Springer B, Kirschner P, Rost-Meyer G, et al. Mycobacterium interjectum, a new species isolated from a patient with chronic lymphadenitis. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:3083-3089.
118. Fandinho FC, Salem JI, Gontijo-Filho PF, et al. Mycobacterial flora of the skin in leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 1991;59:569-575.
119. Hautmann G, Lotti T. Diseases caused by Mycobacterium scrofulaceum. Clinics Dermatol, 995;13:277-280.
120. Fourche J, Capdepuy M, Maugein J, et al. Analysis of cellular fatty acids and proteins by capillary gas chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to differentiate M. avium, M. intracellulare and M. scrofulaceum (MAIS) complex species. J Chromatogr 1990;532:209-216.
121. Ewig S, Kuhnen E, Niese D, et al. Tuberculosis and atypical mycobacterioses in HIV infection. Results from the Bonn Center 1985 to 1989. Med Klin 1990;85:355-360.
122. Xia XX. Clinical analysis of 41 cases of pulmonary atypical mycobacteriosis. Chung Hua Chieh Ho Ho Hu Hsi Tsa Chih 1992;15:200-253.
123. Nunez-Gonzalez LC, Egus-Cuenca C, Silvera-Carcashe E, et al. Mycobacteriosis caused by M. scrofulaceum; report of a case. Rev Cubana Med Trop 1991;43:124-127.
124. Cesarz-Fronczyck M. Diagnostic difficulty in a case of mucoepidermoid bronchial carcinoma. Pol Tyg Lek 1993;48:193-194.
125. Rieu PN, Van den Broek P, Pruszczynski M, et al. Atypical mycobacterial infection of the parotid gland. J Pediatr Surg 1990;25:483-486.
126. Rao PS, Kotian M, Rao K, et al. Bacterial flora of the endometrium in infertile women from Manipal. Ind J Pathol Microbiol 1992;35:357-361.
127. Murray-Leisure KA, Egan N, Weitekamp MR. Skin lesions caused by Mycobacterium scrofulaceum. Arch Dermatol 1987;123:369-370.
128. Sowers WF. Swimming pool granuloma due to Mycobacteria scrofulaceum. Arch Dermatol 1972;105:760-761.
129. Regas JS, Ezzedine H, Martin N, et al. Our experience in the treatment of cervico-facial adenitis caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria. Cir Pediatr 1990;3:62-66.
130. Gorse GJ, Fairshter RD, Friesly G, et al. Nontuberculos mycobacterial disease: experience in a southern California hospital. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:225-228.
131. Marks J, Jenkins PA, Tsukamura M. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen. Tubercle 1972;53:210-214.
132. Maloney JM, Gregg CR, Stephens DS, et al. Infections caused by Mycobacterium szulgai in humans. Rev Infect Dis 1987;9:1120-1126.
133. Davidson PT. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen causing infection of the lung. Chest 1976;69:799-801.
134. Seva-Sutter EA, Silcox VA, David HL. Differential identification of Mycobaterium szulgai and other scotochromogenic mycobacteria. J Clin Microbiol 1976;3:414-420.
135. Groves R. Unusual cutaneous mycobacterial diseases. Clinics Dermatol 1995;13:257-263.
136. Cookson BD, Dunger D. Mycobacterium szulgai: a case of cutaneous infection? Tubercle 1985;66:65-67.
137. Sybert A, Tsou E, Garagusi VF. Cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977;115:695-698.
138. Gur H, Porat S, Haas H, et al. Disseminated mycobacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. Arch Intern Med 1984;144:1861-1863.
139. Cross GM, Guill MA, Aton JK. Cutaneous Mycobacterium szulgai infection. Arch Dermatol 1985;121:247-249.
140. Auperin I, Cadranel J, Malbec JC, Malepart MJ, Akoun GM. Pulmonary infection with Mycobacterium szulgai. Rev Mal Respir 1991;8:295-298.
141. Schaefer WB, Wolinsky E, Jenkins PA, Marks J. Mycobacterium szulgai: a new pathogen. Serologie identification and report of five new cases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1973;108:1320-1326.
142. Good RC. M. szulgai. Clin Microbiol Newslett 1985;7:133.
143. Shelley WB, Folkens AT. Mycobacterium gordonae infection of the hand. Arch Dermatol 1984;120:1064-1065.
144. Perrin C, Michiels JF, Bernard E, et al. Cutaneous spindlecell pseudotumors due to Mycobacterium gordonae and Leishmania infantum. An immunophenotypic study. Am J Dermatopathol 1993;15:553-558.
145. Zala L, Hunziker T, Breathen LR. Chronic cutaneous infection caused by M, gordonae. Dermatology 1993;187:301-302.
146. Gengoux P, Portaels F, Lachapelle JM, et al. Skin granulomas due to M. gordonae. Int J Dermatol, 1987;26:181-184.
147. McIntyre P, Blacklock Z, McCormack JG. Cutaneous infection with M. gordonae. J. Infect 1987;14:71-78.
148. Krieg RE, Hockmeyer WT, Connor DH. Toxin of Mycobacterium ulcerans. Production and effects in guinea pig skin. Arch Dermatol 1974;110:783-788.
149. Barker DJ. Epidemiology of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1973;67:43-50.
150. Epidemiology of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection (Buruli ulcer) at Kinyara, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1971;65:763-775.
151. Mycobacterium ulcerans in Australia (editorial). Med J Aust 1975;2:660-661.
152. Oluwasanmi JO, Solankee TF, Olurin EO, et al. Mycobacterium ulcerans (Buruli) skin ulceration in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1976;25:122-128.
153. Seevanayagam S, Hayman J. Mycobacterium ulcerans infection, is the 'bairnsdale ulcer' also a Ceylonese disease? Ceylon Med J 1992;37:125-127.
154. Van der Werf TS, Van der Graaf WTA. Buruli ulcer in West Africa. Lancet 1990;336:1440.
155. Meyers WM, Shelly WM, Connor DH, Meyers EK. Human Mycobacterium ulcerans infections developing at sites of trauma to skin. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1974;23:919-923.
156. Hayman J. Clinical features of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. Australas J Dermatol 1985;26:67-73.
157. Clinical features and treatment of pre-ulcerative Buruli lesions (Mycobacterium ulcerans infection). Report II of the Uganda Buruli Group. Br Med J 1970;2:390-393.
158. Igo JD, Murthy DP. Mycobacterium ulcerans infections in Papua, New Guinea: correlation of clinical, histological and microbiologic features. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1988;38:391-392.
159. Dawson JF, Allen GE. Ulcer due to Mycobacterium ulcerans in Northern Ireland. Clin Exp Dermatol 1985;10:572-576.
160. Lindo SD, Daniels Jr F. Buruli ulcer in New York City. JAMA 1974;228:1138-1139.
161. Stanford JL, Revill WD, Gunthorpe WJ, Grange JM. The production and preliminary investigation of Burulin, a new skin test reagent for Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. J Hyg (Lond) 1975;74:7-16.
162. Hayman J. Out of Africa: observations on the histopathology of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. J Clin Pathol 1993;46:5-9.
163. Meyers WM, Shelly WM, Connor DH. Heat treatment of Mycobacterium ulcerans infections without surgical excision. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1974;23:924-929.
164. Krieg RE, Wolcott JH, Confer A. Treatment of Mycobacterium ulcerans infection by hyperbaric oxygenation. Aviat Space Environ Med 1975;46:1241-1245.
165. Song M, Vincke G, Vanachter H, et al. Treatment of cutaneous infection due to Mycobacterium ulcerans. Dermatologica 1985;171:197-199.
166. Stanford JL, Phillips I. Rifampicin in experimental Mycobacterium ulcerans infection. J Med Microbiol 1972;5:39-45.
167. Havel A, Pattyn SR. Activity of rifampicin on Mycobacterium ulcerans. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 1975;55:105-108.
168. Oluwasanmi JO, Itayemi SO, Alabi CO. Buruli (mycobacterial) ulcers in Caucasians in Nigeria. Br J Plast Surg 1975;28:111-113.
169. Clark JA, Margolis DM. A cutaneous lesion in a patient with AIDS: an unusual presentation of infection due to Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:555-557.
170. Mirando WS, Shiratsuchi H, Tubesing K, et al. Ultraviolet-irradiated monocytes efficiently inhibit the intracellular replication of M. avium intracellulare. J Clin Invest 1992;89:1282-1287.
171. Schaefer WB. Incidence of serotypes of M. avium and atypical mycobacteria in human and animal diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1968;97:18-24.
172. Portaels F, Larsson L, Smeets P. Isolation of mycobacteria from healthy persons' stools. Int J Leprosy 1988;56:468-471.
173. Feldman WH, Davies R, Moses HE, et al. An unusual mycobacterium isolated from sputum of a man suffering from pulmonary disease of long duration. Am Rev Tuberc 1943;48:82-93.
174. Toyoda T, Aoyagi T, Saito H. Clinical features of the lung diseases due to Mycobacterium avium and M. intracellulare. Kekkaku 1993;68:63-69.
175. Mikolich DJ, Mates SM. Granulomatous prostatitis due to Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:589-591.
176. Cantwell AR. Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection and immunoblastic sarcoma in a fatal case of AIDS. Growth 1986;50:32-40.
177. Boudreau S, Hines HC, Hood AF. Dermal abscesses with Staphylococcus aureus, cytomegalovirus and acid-fast bacilli in a patient with acquired immunodeficency syndrome (AIDS). J Cutan Pathol 1988;15:53-57.
178. DeCoste SD, Dover JS. Kaposi's sarcoma and Mycobacterium avium intracellulare with cellulitis in patient with acquired immunodeficency syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:574-576.
179. Nedorost ST, Elewski B, Tomford JW, Camisa C. Rosacealike lesions due to familial Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infection. Int J Dermatol 1991;30:491-497.
180. Wallace Jr RJ, O'Brien R, Glassroth J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:940-953.
181. Schroder KH, Juhlin I. Mycobacterium malmoense. Int S System Bacteriol 1977;27:241-246.
182. Alberts WM, Chandler KW, Solomon DA, et al. Pulmonary disease caused by Mycobacterium malmoense. Ann Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:1375-1378.
183. Zaugg M, Salfinger M, Opravil M, et al. Extrapulmonary and disseminated infections due to Mycobacterium malmoense: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:540-549.
184. Gannon M, Otridge B, Hone R, et al. Cutaneous Mycobacterium malmoense infection in an immunocompromised patient. Int J Dermatol 1990;29:149-150.
185. Doutre MS, Beylot C, Maugein J, et al. Cutaneous infection caused by Mycobacterium malmoense in a patient with myelodysplastic syndrome. J R Soc Med 1993;86:110-111.
186. Richmond L, Cummings MM. An evaluation of methods of testing the virulence of acid-fast bacilli. Am Rev Tuberc 1950;62:632-637.
187. Peters EJ, Morice R. Miliary pulmonary infection caused by Mycobacterium terrae in an autologous bone marrow transplant patient. Chest 1991;100:1449-1450.
188. Dawson DJ, Jennis F. Mycobacteria with a growth requirement for ferric ammonium citrate, identified as Mycobacterium hemophilum. J Clin Microbiol 1980;11:190-192.
189. Vadney FS, Hawkins JE. Evaluation of a simple method for growing Mycobacterium hemophilum. J Clin Microbiol 1985;22:884-885.
190. Damato JJ, Collins MT. Radiometric studies with gas-liquid and thin-layer chromatography for rapid demonstration of hemin dependence and characterization of Mycobacterium hemophilum. J Clin Microbiol 1984;20:515-518.
191. Sompolinsky D, Lagziel A, Naveh D, Yankilevitz T. Mycobacterium hemophilum sp. nov., a new pathogen of humans. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1978;28:67-75.
192. Sompolinsky D, Lagziel A, Rosenberg I. Further studies of a new pathogenic mycobacterium (M. hemophilum sp. nov.). Can J Microbiol 1979;25:217-226.
193. Ryan CG, Dwyer BW. New characteristics of Mycobacterium hemophilum. J Clin Microbiol 1983;18:976-977.
194. Dever LL, Martin JW, Seaworth B, Jorgensen JH. Varied presentations and responses to treatment of infections caused by Mycobacterium hemophilum in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:1195-1200.
195. Holton J, Nye P, Miller R. Mycobacterium hemophilum infection in a patient with AIDS. J Infect 1991;23:303-306.
196. Rogers PL, Walker RE, Lane HC, et al. Disseminated Mycobacterium hemophilum infection in two patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med 1988;84:640-642.
197. Davis BR, Brumbach J, Sanders WJ, Wolinsky E. Skin lesions caused by Mycobacterium hemophilum. Ann Intern Med 1982;97:723-724.
198. Lederman C, Spitz JL, Scully B, et al. Mycobacterium hemophilum cellulitis in a heart transplant recipient. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;30:804-806.
199. Males BM, West TE, Bartholomew WR. Mycobacterium hemophilum infection in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25:186-190.
200. Gouby A, Branger B, Oules R, Ramuz M. Two cases of Mycobacterium hemophilum infection in a renal-dialysis unit. J Med Microbiol 1988;25:299-300.
201. Kristjansson M, Bieluch VM, Byeff PD. Mycobacterium hemophilum infection in immunocompromised patients: Case report and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:906-910.
202. Bernard EM, Edwards FF, Mehn TE, et al. Activities of antimicrobial agents against clinical isolates of Mycobacterium hemophilum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993;37:2323-2326.
203. Branger B, Gouby A, Oules R, et al. Mycobacterium hemophilum and Mycobacterium xenopi associated infection in a renal transplant patient. Clin Nephrol 1985;23:46-49.
204. McBride ME, Rudolph AH, Tschen JA, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic considerations for cutaneous Mycobacterium hemophilum infections (letter). Arch Dermatol 1991; 127:276-277.
205. McGovern J, Bix BC, Webster G. Mycobacterium hemophilum skin disease successfully treated with excision. J Am Acad Dermatol 1994;30:269-270.
206. Kiehl P, Eicher U, Vakilzadeh F. A lupus-vulgaris like atypical mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium xenopi (lupus xenopi). Hautarzt 1992;43:569-575.
207. Wallace RJ, Swenson JM, Silcox VA, et al. Spectrum of disease due to rapidly growing mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5:657-679.
208. Sastry V, Brennan PJ. Cutaneous infections with rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clinics Dermatol, 1995;13:265-271.
209. Kuster E. Uber Kaltblutertuberkulose Muenchener Mech Zinische Wochenschr 1905;52:57-59.
210. DeCosta Cruz J. Mycobacterium fortuitum, un novo bacilo acido resistente patogenico par o homem. Acta Med Rio de Janeiro 1938;1:297-301.
211. Rotman DA, Blauvelt A, Kerdel FA. Widespread primary cutaneous infection with mycobacterium fortuitum. Int J Dermatol 1993;32:512-514.
212. Newton Jr JA, Weiss PJ, Bowler WA, Oldfield EC. Soft-tissue infection due to Mycobacterium smegmatis: report of two cases. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:531-533.
213. Timpe A, Runyon EH. The relationship of atypical acidfast bacilli to human disease: A preliminary report. J Lab Clin Med 1954;44:202-209.
214. Sack JB. Disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum in a patient with AIDS. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:961-963.
215. Di Silverio A, Ubezio S, Zeccara C, et al. Micobatteriosi da M. fortuitum. G Ital Dermatol Venereol 1992;127:191-194.
216. Katayama I, Nishioka K, Nishiyama S. Mycobacterium fortuitum infection presenting as widespread cutaneous abscess in a pregnant woman. Int J Dermatol 1990;29:383-385.
217. Ballestrem VG, Alvarenga AG. A case report: dual mycobacterial infection in a Paraguayan patient due to Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium fortuitum. Lepr Rev 1993;64:73-74.
218. Nolan CM, Hashisaki PA, Dundas DF. An outbreak of soft tissue infections due to M. fortuitum associated with electromyography. J Infect Dis 1991;163:1150-1153.
219. Fujimoto W, Kanzaki H, Fujiwara H, et al. Cutaneous infection by M. fortuitum biovariant third group: a case report and bacteriological examination of the isolate. Nippon Hifuka Gakkai Zasshi 1990;100:1173-1181.
220. Burns DN, Rohatgi PK, Rosenthal R, et al. Disseminate Mycobacterium fortuitum successfully treated with combination therapy including ciprofloxacin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:468-470.
221. Drabick JJ, Duffy PE, Samlaska CP, et al. Disseminated Mycobacterium chelonae subspecies chelonae infection with cutaneous and osseous manifestations. Arch Dermatol 1990;126:1064-1067.
222. Swetter SM, Kindel SE, Smoller BR. Cutaneous nodules of Mycobacterium chelonae in an immunosuppressed patient with preexisting pulmonary colonization. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;28:352-355.
223. Schafer U, Nilles M, Schill WB, et al. Atypical mycobacteriosis in immunosuppression. Hautartz 1993;44:106-109.
224. Singh S, Rattan A, Kumar S. Severe cutaneous M. chelonei infection following a yellow jacket sting. Tuber Lung Dis 1992;73:305-306.
225. Wallace Jr RJ, Brown BA, Onyi GO. Skin, soft tissue, and bone infections due to Mycobacterium chelonae: importance of prior corticosteroid therapy, frequency of disseminated infections, and resistance to oral antimicrobials other than clarithromycin. J Infect Dis 1992;166:405-412.
226. Baack BR, Brown RE. Atypical mycobacterium soft-tissue infection of the dorsal radial wrist: a possible complication of steroid injection for de Quervain's disease. Ann Plast Surg 1991;27:73-76.
227. Ben-Chaim J, Leibowitch I, Raviv G, et al. Persistent vasocutaneous fistula associated with chronic urinary M. chelonei infection. J Urol 1993;149:140-141.
228. Jopp-McKay AG, Randell P. Sporotrichoid cutaneous infection due to M. chelonei in a renal transplant recipient. Australas J Dermatol 1990;31:105-109.
229. Miller AC, Commens CA, Jaworski R, et al. The turtle's revenge: a case of soft tissue Mycobacterium chelonae infection. Med J Aust 1990;153:493-495.
230. Paul J, Baigrie C, Parums DV. Fatal case of disseminated infection with the turtle bacillus Mycobacterium chelonae. J Clin Pathol 1992;45:528-530.
231. Wolinsky E, Rynaerson T. Mycobacterial flora of the soil. Am Rev Respr Dis 1966;94:478.
232. Lichtenstein IH, MacCregor RR. Mycobacterial infections in renal transplant recipients: report on 5 cases and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5:216-226.
233. Gruft H, Kalkinham JO, Parker BC. Recent experience in the epidemiology of disease caused by atypical mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 1981;3:990-996.
234. Grange JM. Mycobacteria and the skin. Int J Dermatol 1982;21:497-503.
235. Dalaviso IR, Pankey GA. Problems in the diagnosis and therapy of M. fortuitum infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;117:625-30.
236. Brock JM, Kennedy CB, Clark WH, et al. Cutaneous infections with atypical mycobacteria: report of a case. Arch Dermatol 1960;82:918-20.
237. Ariel I, Haas H, Weinberg H, et al. M. fortuitum granulomatous synovitis caused by a dog bite. J Hand Surg 1983;8:342-345.
238. Rosenmeir GI, Keeling JH, Grabski WJ, et al. Latent cutaneous M. fortuitum infection in a healthy man. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:898-902.
239. Collins CH, Kennedy DA. Microbiological hazards of occupational needlestick and sharps injuries. J Appl Bacteriol 1987;62:385-405.
240. Rotman DA, Blauvelt K. Widespread primary cutaneous infection with M. fortuitum. Im J Dermatol 1993;32:512-514.
241. Graybill JR, Silva J, Fraser DW, et al. Disseminated mycobacteriosis due to Mycobacterium abscessus in two recipients of renal hornografts. Am Rev Respir Dis 1974;109:104.
242. Band JD, Ward JI, Fraser DW, et al. Peritonitis due to a M. chelonei-like organism associated with intermittent chronic peritoneal dialysis. J Infect Dis 1981;145:9-17.
243. Horsburgh CR, Selik RM. The epidemiology of disseminated nontuberculous infection in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:4-7.
244. Clegg HW, Foster MT, Sanders WE, et al. Infection due to organisms of the M. fortuitum complex after augmentation mammoplasty: Clinical and epidemiologic features. J Infect Dis 1983;147:427-433.
245. Foz A, Roy C, Jurado J, et al. M. chelonei iatrogenic infections. J Clin Microbiol 1978;7:319-322.
246. Laflamme MY, Poisson M, Chehade N, et al. M. chelonei keratitis following penetrating keratoplasty. Can J Ophthalmol 1987;22:178-180.
247. Svirbely JR, Buesching W, Ayers LW, et al. M. fortuitum infection of a Hickman catheter site. Am Soc Clin Pathol 1983;80:733-735.
248. Stahl DA, Urbance JW. The division between fast and slow-growing species corresponds to natural relationships among the mycobacteria. Bacteriol 1990;172:116-124.
249. Santa Cruz DJ, Strayer DS. The histologic spectrum of the cutaneous mycobacterioses. Hum Pathol 1982;13:485-495.
250. Plaus W, Hermann G. The surgical management of superficial infections caused by atypical mycobacteria. Surgery 1991;110:99-103.
251. Murdoch ME, Leigh IM. Sporotrichoid spread of cutaneous M. chelonei infection. Clin Exp Dermatol 1989;14:309-312.
252. Hendrick SI, Jorizzo JL, Newton RC, et al. Giant Mycobacterium fortuitum abscesses associated with SLE. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:695-697.
253. Ingram CW, Tanner DC, Durack DT, et al. Disseminated infection with rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:463-471.
254. Wallace RJ, Swenson JM, Silcox VA, et al. Treatment of nonpulmonary infections due to M. fortuitum, M. chelonei on the basis of in vitro susceptibilities. J Infect Dis 1985;152:500-514.
255. Brown BA, Wallace RJ, Onyi CO, et al. Activities of four macrolides, including clarithromycin, against Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium chelonae and M. chelonaelike organisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36:180-184.