Cytomegalovirus in transplantation: New developments

Coronary Artery Disease

Volumn 8, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 305-316

  Lam, Kitty M C ^a   Khan, Mahboob ^a  

^a HAREFIELD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS ANTIBODY; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS VACCINE; GANCICLOVIR;

ADOPTIVE TRANSFER; ALLOGRAFT; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BRONCHIOLITIS; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; CYTOMEGALIC INCLUSION BODY DISEASE; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; GENE THERAPY; GRAFT REJECTION; HEART GRAFT; HUMAN; IMMUNIZATION; IMMUNOCOMPETENCE; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INFECTION RISK; NEUTROPENIA; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; POSTOPERATIVE INFECTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VACCINATION; VIRUS PATHOGENESIS;

EID: 0030852128     PISSN: 09546928     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00019501-199705000-00008     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Wentworth BB, Alexander ER: Seroepidemiology of infections due to members of the herpesvirus group. Am J Epidemiol 1971, 94:496-507
2. Marshall GS, Rabalais GP, Stout GG, Waldeyer SL: Antibodies to recombinant-derived glycoprotein B after natural human cytomegalovirus infection correlate with neutralizing activity. J Infect Dis 1992, 165:381-384.
3. Borysiewicz LK, Morris SM, Page JD, Sissons JGP: Human cytomegalovirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes: requirements for in vitro generation and specificity. Eur J Immunol 1983, 13:804-809.
4. Meyers JD, Flournoy N, Thomas ED: Risk factors for cytomegalovirus infection after human bone marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis 1986, 153:478-488.
5. Taylor-Wiedeman J, Sissons JGP, Sinclair JH: Induction of endogenous human cytomegalovirus gene expression after differentiation of monocytes from healthy carriers. J Virol 1994, 68:1597-1604.
6. Fish KN, Britt W, Nelson JA: A novel mechanism for persistence of human cytomegalovirus in macrophages. J Virol 1996, 70:1855-1862.
7. Drew W: Cytomegalovirus infection in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1988, 158:449-456.
8. Rubin RH: Impact of cytomegalovirus infection on organ transplant recipients. Rev Infect Dis 1990, 12:5754-8762.
9. Yalcin S, Karpuzoglu T, Suleymanlar G, Mutlu G, Mukai T, Yamamoto T, Isegawa Y Yamanishi K: Human herpesvirus 6 and human herpesvirus 7 infections in renal transplant recipients and healthy adults in Turkey. Arch Virol 1994, 136:183-190.
10. Osman HKE, Peiris JSM, Taylor CE, Warwicker P, Jarrett RF, Madeley CR: 'Cytomegalovirus Disease' in renal allograft recipients: is human herpesvirus 7 a co-factor for disease progression? J Med Virol 1996, 48:295-301.
11. Rinaldo CR, Carney WP, Richter BS, Black PH, Hirsch MS: Mechanisms of immunosuppression in cytomegaloviral mononucleosis. J Infect Dis 1980, 141:488-495.
12. 2 Wagner JA, Ross H, Hunt S, Gamberg P, Valantine H, Merigan TC, Stinson EB: Prophylactic ganciclovir treatment reduces fungal as well as cytomegalovirus infections after heart transplantation. Transplantation 1995, 60:1473-1477.
13. Grattan MT, Moreno-Cabral CE, Starnes VA, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Shunway NE: Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with cardiac allograft rejection and atherosclerosis. JAMA 1989, 261:3561-3566.
14. Rubin RH: The indirect effects of cytomegalovirus infection on the outcome of organ transplantation. JAMA 1989, 261:3607-3609.
15. Ljungman P, Plotkin SA: Workshop on CMV disease; definitions, clinical severity scores, and new syndromes. Scand J Infect Dis 1995, 99(suppl):87-89.
16. Lungman P, Griffiths P: Definitions of cytomegalovirus infection and disease. In Multidisciplinary Approach to Understanding CMV Disease. Edited by Plotkin SA, Michelson S. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica International Congress Series; 1993, 1032:233-240.
17. Weir MR, Irwin BC, Maters AW, Genemans G, Shen SY, Charache P, Williams GM: Incidence of cytomegalovirus disease in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients based on donor/recipient pre-transplant immunity. Transplantation 1987, 43:187-193.
18. Bowden RA, Sayers M, Flournoy N, Newton B, Banaji M, Thomas ED, et al.: Cytomegalovirus immune globulin and seronegative blood products to prevent primary cytomegalovirus infection after marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1986, 314:1006-1010.
19. Pass RF, Whitley RJ, Diethelm AG, Whelchel JD, Reynolds DW, Alford CA: Cytomegalovirus infection in patients with renal transplants: potentiation by antithymocyte globulin and an incompatible graft. J Infect Dis 1980, 142:9-17.
20. Portela D, Patel R, Larson-Keller JJ, Ilstrup DM, Wiesner RH, Steers JL, Krom RAF, Paya CV: OKT3 treatment for allograft rejection is a risk factor for cytomegalovirus disease in liver transplantation. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:1014-1018.
21. Dummer JS, White LT, Ho M, Griffith BP, Hardesty RL, Bahnson HT: Morbidity of cytomegalovirus infection in recipients of heart or heart-lung transplants who received cyclosporine. J Infect Dis 1985, 152:1182-1191.
22. Meyer JD, Reed EC, Shepp DH, Thornquist M, Dandliker PS, Vicary CA, et al: Acyclovir for prevention of cytomegalovirus infection and disease after allogeneic marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1988, 318:70-75.
23. Balfour HH Jr, Chace BA, Stapleton JT, Simmons RL, Fryd DS: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oral acyclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in recipients of renal allograft. N Engl J Med 1989, 320:1381-1387.
24. Kletzmayr J, Kotzmann H, Popow-Kraupp T, Kovarik J, Klauser R: Impact of high-dose oral acyclovir prophylaxis on cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease in CMV high-risk renal transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996, 7:325-330.
25. Singh N, Yu VL, Mieles L, Wagener MM, Miner RC, Gayowski T: High-dose acyclovir compared with short-course pre-emptive ganciclovir therapy to prevent cytomegalovirus disease in liver transplant recipients: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1994, 120:375-381.
26. Faulds D, Heel RC: Ganciclovir: a review of its antiviral activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in cytomegalovirus infections. Drugs 1990, 39:597-638.
27. Miller LW, Naftel DC, Bourge RC, Kirklin JK, Brozena SC, Jarcho J, Hobbs RE, Mills RM and the Cardiac Transplantation Research Database Group: Infection after heart transplantation: a multi-institutional study. J Heart Lung Transplant 1994, 13:381-393.
28. Merigan TL, Renlund DG, Keay S, Bristow MR, Starnes V, O'Connell JB, et al.: A controlled trial of ganciclovir to prevent cytomegalovirus disease after heart transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992, 326:1182-1186.
29. Schmidt GM, Horak AD, Niland JC, Duncan SR, Forman SJ, Zaia JA, and the City of Hope-Stanford-Syntex CMV Study Group: A randomized, controlled trial of prophylactic ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus pulmonary infection in recipients of allogeneic bone marrow transplants. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:1005-1011.
30. Goodrich JM, Mori M, Gleaves CA, Du Mond C, Cays M, Ebeling DF, Buhles WC, DeArmond B, Meyers JD: Early treatment with ganciclovir to prevent cytomegalovirus disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1991, 325:1601-1607.
31. Goodrich JM, Bowden RA, Fisher L, Keller C, Schoch G, Meyers JD: Ganciclovir prophylaxis to prevent cytomegalovirus disease after allogeneic marrow transplant. Ann Int Med 1993, 118:173-178.
32. Winston DJ, Ho WG, Bartoni K, Du Mond C, Ebeling DF, Buhles WC, Champlin RE: Ganciclovir prophylaxis of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients. Ann Int Med 1993, 118:179-184.
33. Winston DJ, Wirin D, Shaked A, Busuttil RW: Randomised comparison of ganciclovir and high-dose acyclovir for long-term cytomegalovirus prophylaxis in liver-transplant recipients. Lancet 1995, 346:69-74.
34. Mandanas RA, Saez RA, Selby GB, Confer DL: Cytomegalovirus surveillance and prevention in allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: examination of a pre-emptive plan of ganciclovir therapy. Am J Hematol 1996, 51:104-111.
35. Rubin RH: Pre-emptive therapy in immunocompromised hosts. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:1057-1059.
36. Martin JC, Dvorak CA, Smee DF, Matthews TR, Verheyden JPH: 9-[1.2-dihydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl] guanine: a new potent and selective antiherpes agent J Med Chem 1983, 26:759-761.
37. Rasmussen L, Keisall D, Nelson R, Carney W, Hirsch M, Winston D, Preiksaitis J, Merigan RC: Virus-specific IgG and Ig M antibodies in normal and immunocompromised subjects infected with cytomegalovirus. J Infect Dis 1982, 145:191-199.
38. Meyers JD, Ljungmen P, Fisher LD: Cytomegalovirus excretion as a predictor for cytomegalovirus disease after marrow transplantation: importance of cytomegalovirus viremia. J Infect Dis 1990, 162:373-380.
39. Hokeberg I, Eriksson BM, Zweygberg-Wirgart B, Rufvesson G, Olding-Stenkvist E, Grillner L: Diagnostic markers and risk factors of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in renal allograft recipients. Scand J Infect Dis 1995, 27:435-440.
40. Badley AD, Patel R, Portela DF, Harmsen WS, Smith TF, Ilstrup DM, Steers JL, Wiesner RH, Paya CV: Prognostic significance and risk factors of untreated cytomegalovirus viremia in liver transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 1996, 173:446-469.
41. Benyesh-Melnick M: Cytomegaloviruses. In Diagnostic Procedures for Viral and Rickettsial Infections. Edited by Lennette EH, Schmidt NJ. New York: American Public Health Association; 1969:701-732.
42. Griffiths PD, Stirk PR, Ganczakowski M, Panjwani DD, Ball MG, Blacklock HA, Prentice HG: Rapid diagnosis of cytomegalovirus infection in immunocompromised patients by detection of early antigen fluorescent foci. Lancet 1984, ii:1242-1245.
43. Gleaves CA, Smith TF, Schuster EA, Pearson GR: Rapid detection of cytomegalovirus in MRC-5 cells inoculated with urine specimens by using low-speed centrifugation and monoclonal antibody to early antigen. J Clin Microbiol 1984, 19:917-919.
44. St George K, Rinaldo CR Jr: Comparison of monoclonal antibodies for immunostaining in the cytomegalovirus shell vial assay on 4,388 specimens. J Med Virol 1995, 47:269-271.
45. Van der Bij W, van Dijk RB, van Son WJ, Torensma R, Prenger KB, Prop J, Tegzess AM, The TH : Antigen test for early diagnosis of active cytomegalovirus infection in heart transplant recipients. J Heart Transplant 1988, 7:106-109.
46. Grefts JMM, Van der Gun BTF, Schmolke S, Van der Giessen M, Van Son WJ, Plachter B, Jahn G, The TH: The lower matrix protein pp65 is the principal viral antigen present in peripheral blood leukocytes during an active cytomegalovirus infection. J Gen Virol 1992. 73:2923-2932.
47. Egan JJ, Barber L, Lomax H, Fox A, Yonan N, Rahman AN, et al.: Detection of human cytomegalovirus antigenaemia: a rapid diagnostic technique for predicting cytomegalovirus infection/pneumonitis in lung and heart transplant recipients. Thorax 1995, 50:9-13.
48. Landry ML, Ferguson D, Stevens-Ayers T, De Jong MWA, Boeckh M: Evaluation of CMV Brite kit for detection of cytomegalovirus pp65 antigenemia in peripheral blood leukocytes by immunofluorescence. J Clin Microbiol 1996, 34:1337-1339.
49. Buller RS, Bailey TC, Ettinger NA, Keener M, Langlois T, Miller JP, Storch GA: Use of a modified shell vial technique to quantitate cytomegalovirus viremia in a population of solid-organ transplant recipients. J Clin Microbiol 1992, 30:2620-2724.
50. Gerna G, Revello MG, Percivalle E, Zavattoni M, Parea M, Battaglia M: Quantification of human cytomegalovirus viremia by using monoclonal antibodies to different viral proteins. J Clin Microbiol 1990, 28:2681-2688.
51. Grossi P, Minoli L, Percivalle E, Irish W, Vigano M, Gerna G: Clinical and virological monitoring of human cytomegalovirus infection in 294 heart transplant recipients. Transplantation 1995, 59:847-851.
52. Jiwa NM, van Gemert GW, Raap AK, van de Rijke FM, Mulder A, Lens PF, Salimans MMM, Zwaan FE, van Dorp W, van der Ploeg M: Rapid detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA in peripheral blood leukocytes of viremic transplant recipients by the polymerase chain reaction. Transplantation 1989, 48:72-76.
53. Fries BC, Chou S, Boeckh M, Torok-Storb B: Frequency distribution of cytomegalovirus envelope glycoprotein genotypes in bone marrow transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 1994, 169:769-774.
54. Taylor-Wiedeman J, Sissons JGP, Borysiewicz LK, Sinclair JH: Monocytes are a major site of persistence of human cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Gen Virol 1991, 72: 2059-2064.
55. Boivin G, Chou S, Quirk MR, Erice J, Jordan MC: Detection of ganciclovir resistance mutations and quantitation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in leukocytes of patients with fatal disseminated CMV disease. J Infect Dis 1996, 173:523-528.
56. Bitsch A, Kirchner H, Dupke R, Bein G: Failure to detect human cytomegalovirus DNA in peripheral blood leukocytes of healthy blood donors by the polymerase chain reaction. Transfusion 1992, 32:612-617
57. Stanier P, Taylor DL, Kitchen AD, Wales N, Tryhorn Y, Tyms AS: Persistence of cytomegalovirus in mononuclear cells in peripheral blood from blood donors. BMJ 1989, 299:897-898.
58. Bevan IS, Daw RA, Day PJR, Ala FA, Walker MR: Polymerase chain reaction for detection of human cytomegalovirus infection in a blood donor population. Br J Haematol 1991, 79:94-99.
59. Drouet E, Colimon R, Michelson S, Fourcade N, Niveleau A, Ducerf C, Boibieux A, Chevallier M, Denoyel G: Monitoring levels of human cytomegalovirus DNA in blood after liver transplantation. J Clin Microbiol 1995, 33:389-394.
60. Manez R, Kusne S, Rinaldo C, Aguado JM, St George K, Grossi P, Frye B, Fung JJ, Ehrlich GD: Time to detection of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in blood leukocytes is a predictor for the development of CMV disease in CMV-seronegative recipients of allografts from CMV-seropositive donors following liver transplantation. J Infect Dis 1996, 173:1072-1076.
61. Patel R, Smith TF, Espy M, Portela D, Wiesner RH, Krom RAF, Paya CV: A prospective comparison of molecular diagnostic techniques for the early detection of cytomegalovirus in liver transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:1010-1014.
62. Zhang LJ, Hanff P, Rutherford C, Churchill WH, Crumpacker CS: Detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA, RNA and antibody in normal donor blood. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:1002-1006.
63. Meyer-Konig U, Serr A, von Laer D, Kirste G, Wolff C, Haller O, Neumann-Haefelin D, Hufert FT: Human cytomegalovirus immediate early and late transcripts in peripheral blood leukocytes: diagnostic value in renal transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:705-709.
64. Nelson PN, Rawal BK, Boriskin YS, Mathers KE, Powles RL, Steel HM, Tryhorn YS, Butcher PD, Booth JC: A polymerase chain reaction to detect a spliced late transcript of human cytomegalovirus in the blood of bone marrow transplant recipients. J Virol Meth 1996, 56:139-148.
65. Lunel F, Mariotti M, Cresta P, De la Croix I, Huraux JM, Lefrere JJ: Comparative study of conventional and novel strategies for the detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in serum: amplicor, branched-DNA, NASBA and in-house PCR. J Virol Meth 1995, 54:159-171.
66. Einsele H, Ehninger G, Hebart H, Wittkowski KM, Schuler U, Jahn G, et al.: Polymerase chain reaction monitoring reduces the incidence of cytomegalovirus disease and the duration and side effects of anti-viral therapy after bone marrow transplantation. Blood 1995, 86: 2815-2820. A study of 71 bone-marrow transplant recipients to compare ganciclovir pre-emptive therapy based on PCR assay with early ganciclovir treatment based on conventional culture technique. Results show that patients in the PCR detection group had lower incidences of cytomegalovirus disease, lower associated mortality, and shorter duration of ganciclovir therapy than patients in the culture-based detection group.
67. Iberer F, Tscheliessnigg K, Haiwachs G, Rahak P Wasler A. Petutschnigg B, et al.: Definitions of cytomegalovirus disease after heart transplantation: antigenernia as a marker for antiviral therapy. Transplant Int 1996, 9:236-242.
68. Snydman DR, Werner BG, Heinze-Lacy BH, Berardi VP, Tinley ML, Kirkman RL, et al.: Use of cytomegalovirus immune globulin to prevent cytomegalovirus disease in renal transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 1987, 317:1049-1054.
69. Metselaar HJ, Balk AHMM, Mochtar B, Rothbarth PH, Weimar W: Cytomegalovirus seronegative heart transplant recipients: prophylactic use of anti-CMV immunoglobulin. Chest 1990, 97:396-399.
70. Steinmuller DR, Novic AC, Streem SB, Graneto D, Swift C: Intravenous immunoglobulin infusions for the prophylaxis of secondary cytomegalovirus infections. Transplantation 1990, 49:68-70.
71. Reed EC, Bowden RA, Dandliker PS, Lilleby KE, Meyers JD: Treatment of cytomegalovirus pneumonia with ganciclovir and intravenous cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin in patient with bone marrow transplants. Ann Intern Med 1988, 190:763-788.
72. Porath A, McNut RA, Smiley LM, Weigle KA: Effectiveness and cost benefit of a proposed live cytomegalovirus vaccine in the prevention of congenital disease. Rev Infect Dis 1990, 12:31-40.
73. Plotkin SA, Furukaqa T, Zygraich N, Huygelen C: Candidate cytomegalovirus strain for human vaccination. Infect Immunol 1975, 12:521-527.
74. Balfour HH Jr, Welo PK, Sachs GW: Cytomegalovirus vaccine trial in 400 renal transplant candidates. Transplant Proc 1985, 17:81-83.
75. Plotkin SA, Starr SE, Friedman HM, Brayman K. Harris S, Jackson S, Tustin NB, Grossman R, Dafoe D, Barker C: Effect of Towne live virus vaccine on cytomegalovirus disease after renal transplant. Ann Intern Med 1991, 114:525-531.
76. Plotkin SA, Higgins R, Kurtz JB, Morris PJ, Campbell DA Jr, Shope TC, Spector SA, Danker WM: Multicenter trial of Towne strain attenuated virus vaccine in seronegative renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1994, 58:1176-1178.
77. Plotkin SA, Huang ES: Cytomegalovirus vaccine virus (Towne strain) does not induce latency. J Infect Dis 1985, 152:395-397.
78. Liu YNC, Klaus A, Kari B, Slinski M, Eckhardt J, Gehrz R: The N-terminal 513 amino acids of the envelope glycoprotein gB of human cytomegalovirus stimulates both B- and T-cell immune responses in human. J Virol 1991, 65:1644-1648.
79. Quinnan GV Jr, Kirmani N, Esber E, Saral R, Manischewitz JF, Rogers JL, Rook AH, Santos GW, Burns WH: HLA-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte and nonthymic cytotoxic lymphocytes responses to cytomegalovirus infection of bone marrow transplant recipients. J Immunol 1981, 126:2036-2041.
80. Quinnan GV, Kirmani N, Rook AH, Manischewitz JF, Jackson L, Moreschi G, Santos G, Saral R, Burns W: Cytotoxic T cells in cytomegalovirus infection: HLA-restricted T lymphocytes and non-T lymphocyte cytotoxic responses correlate with recovery from cytomegalovirus infection in bone marrow transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 1982, 307:7-13.
81. Reusser P, Riddell SR, Meyers JD, Greenberg PD: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response to cytomegalovirus after human allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: pattern of recovery and correlation with cytomegalovirus infection and disease. Blood 1991, 78:1373-1380.
82. Lukacher AE, Braciale VL, Braciale TJ: In vivo effector function of influenza virus-specific CTL clones if highly specific. J Exp Med 1984, 160:814-826.
83. Riddell SR, Reusser P, Greenberg PD: Cytotoxic T cells specific for cytomegalovirus: a potential therapy for immunocompromised patients. Rev Infect Dis 1991, 13 (suppl 11):S966-S973.
84. Reddehase MJ, Weiland F, Munch K, Jonjic S, Luske A, Koszinowski UH: Interstitial murine cytomegalovirus pneumonia after irradiation: characterization of cells that limit viral replication during established infection of the lungs. J Virol 1985, 55:264-273.
85. Riddell S, Watanabe K, Goodrich J, Li CR, Agha M, Greenberg P: Restoration of viral immunity in immunodeficient humans by the adoptive transfer of T cell clones. Science 1992, 257:238-241.
86. Walter EA, Greenberg PD, Gilbert MJ, Finch RJ, Watanabe KS, Thomas ED, Riddell SR: Reconstitution of cellular immunity against cytomegalovirus in recipients of allogeneic bone marrow by transfer of T-cell clones from the donor. N Engl J Med 1995, 333:1038-1044.
87. Riddell SR, Gilbert MJ, Greenberg PD: CD8+ cytotoxic T cell therapy of cytomegalovirus and HIV infection. Curr Opin Immunol 1993, 5:484-491.
88. Li CR, Greenberg PD, Gilbert MJ, Goodrich JM, Riddell SR: Recovery of HLA-restricted cytomegalovirus (CMV)-specific T-cell responses after allogeneic bone marrow transplant: correlation with CMV disease and effect of ganciclovir prophylaxis. Blood 1994, 83:1971-1979.
89. Riddell SR, Greenberg PD: The use of anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 monoclonal antibodies to clone and expand human antigen-specific T cells. J Immunol Meth 1990, 12:189-201.
90. McLaughlin-Taylor E, Pande H, Forman SJ, Tanamachi B, Li CR, Zaia JA, Greenberg PD, Riddell SR: Identification of the major late human cytomegalovirus matrix protein pp65 as a target antigen for CD8+ virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. J Med Virol 1994, 43:103-110.
91. Borysiewicz LK, Hickling JK, Graham S, Sinclair J, Cranage MP, Smith GL, Sissons JGP: Human cytomegalovirus-specific cytotoxic T cells: relative frequency of stage-specific CTL recognising the 72 KD immediate early protein and glycoprotein B expressed by recombinant vaccinia viruses. J Exp Med 1988, 168:919-931.
92. Riddell SR, Rabin M, Geballe AP, Britt WJ, Greenberg PD: Class I MHC-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte recognition of cells infected with human cytomegalovirus does not require endogenous viral gene expression. J Immunol 1991, 146:2795-2804.
93. Gilbert M, Riddell S, Li CR, Greenberg P: Selective interference with class I major histocompatibility complex presentation of the major immediate-early protein following infection with human cytomegalovirus. J Virol 1992, 67:3461-3469.
94. Ross R: Atherosclerosis: a defence mechanism gone awry. Am J Pathol 1993, 143:98-1002.
95. Roberts WC: Preventing and arresting coronary atherosclerosis. Am Heart J 1995, 130:580-600.
96. Bell MR, Berger PB, Bresnahan JF, Reeder GS, Bailey KR, Holmes DR: Initial and long term outcome of 354 patients after coronary balloon angioplasty of total occlusions. Circulation 1992, 85:1003-1011.
97. Hanke H, Strohschneider T, Oberhoff M, Beiz E, Karsdh KR: Time course of smooth muscle cell proliferation in the intima and media of arteries following experimental angioplasty. Circ Res 1990, 67:651-159.
98. McBride W, Lange RA, Hillis LD: Restenosis after successful coronary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 1988, 318:1734-1737.
99. Hruban RH, Wu TC, Beschomer WE, Cameron DE, Ambinder RF, Baumgartner WA, Reitz BA, Hutchins GM: Cytomegalovirus nucleic acids in allografted hearts. Hum Pathol 1990, 21:981-983.
100. McDonald K, Rector TS, Braunlin EA, Kubo SH, Oliveri MT: Association of coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant recipients with Cytomegalovirus infection. Am J Cardiol 1989, 64:359-362.
101. Wu TC, Hruban RH, Ambinder RF, Pizzomo M, Cameron DE, Beschomer WE, Baumgartner WAS, Reita BA, Hutchins GM: Demonstration of Cytomegalovirus nucleic acids in the coronary arteries of transplanted hearts. Am J Pathol 1992, 140:739-747.
102. Speir E, Modali R, Huang ES, Leon MB, Shawl F, Finkel T, Epstein SE: Potential role of human Cytomegalovirus and p53 interaction in coronary restenosis. Science 1994, 265:391-394.
103. Zhou YF, Leon MB, Waclawiw MA, Popma JF, Yu ZX, Finkel T, Epstein SE: Association between prior Cytomegalovirus infection and the risk of restenosis after coronary atherectomy. N Engl J Med 1996, 335:624-630.
104. Hendrix MGR, Dormans PHJ, Kitslaar P, Bosman G, Brooeman CA: The presence of Cytomegalovirus nucleic acids in arterial walls of atherosclerotic and non-atherosclerotic patients. Am J Pathol 1989, 134:1151-1157.
105. Gulizia JM, Kandolf R, Kendall TJ, Thieszen SL, Wilson JE, Radio SJ, Costanzo MR, Winters GL, Miller LL, McManus BM: Infrequency of Cytomegalovirus genome in coronary arteriopathy of human heart allografts. Am J Pathol 1995, 147:461-475.
106. Grech ED, Dodd NJF, Jackson MJ, Morrison WL, Faragher EB, Ramsdale DR: Evidence for free radical generation after primary percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty recanalization in acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 1996, 77:122-127.
107. Ohara Y, Peterson TE, Harrison DG: Hypercholesterolemia increases endothelial superoxide anion production. J Clin Invest 1993, 91:2546-2551.
108. Speir E, Shibutani R, Yu ZX, Farrans V, Epstein SE: Role of reactive oxygen intermediates in Cytomegalovirus gene expression and in the response of human smooth muscle cells to viral infection. Circ Res 1996, 79:1143-1152. The stimulation of reactive oxygen radicals produced in response to injury and viral infection resulted in the transcription of Cytomegalovirus IE72 via the nuclear factor-KB pathway. Full viral replication occurred in vascular smooth muscle cells and could contribute to the pathogenesis of restenosis.
109. Weinberg RA: Tumor suppressor genes. Science 1991, 254:1138-1146.
110. Sherr CJ: G1 phase progression: cycling on cue. Cell 1994, 79:551-555.
111. EI-Deiry W, Tokino T, Velculescu VE, Levy DB, Parsons R, Trent JM, Lin D, Mercer WE, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B: WAF1 a potential mediator of p53 tumor suppression. Cell 1993, 75:817-825.
112. Harper JW, Adami GR, Wei N, Keyomars K, Elledge SJ: The p21 cdk-interacting protein CIP1 is a potent inhibitor of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Cell 1993, 73:805-816.
113. Bundy RE, Latif N, Lam KM, Yacoub M, Khan MA: Cytomegalovirus induced changes in retinoblastoma protein in human coronary smooth muscle cells. FASEB J 1996, 10:A1523. The tumour suppressor pRb functions as a negative regulator in mammalian cell cycle progression. In-vitro infection of vascular smooth muscle cells by cytomegalovirus led to an accumulation of pRb in the inactive hyperphosphorylated form. The loss of a negative regulator function would allow progression through the cell cycle.
114. Chang MW, Barr E, Seltser J, Jiang Y-Q, Nabel GJ, Nabel EG, Parmecek MS, Leiden JM: Cytostatic gene therapy for vascular proliferative disorders with a constitutively active form of the retinoblastoma protein gene product. Science 1995, 267:518-522. This group generated a replication defective adenovirus vector encoding a non-phosphorylatable, constitutively expressed form of the retinoblastoma gene. This construct with a defective pRb function was shown to inhibit vascular smooth muscle cell growth-factor stimulated proliferation in vitro. Localized transfections of the defective pRb after balloon angioplasty significantly reduced the ratio of neointima to media area, compared with non-transfected arteries, in both rat carotid and porcine artery models of restenosis.
115. Khan MA, Bundy RE, Latif N, Lam KM, Yacoub M: Cytomegalovirus induced expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin E in human coronary smooth muscle cells. FASEB J 1996, 10:A1520. The cyclins are important cellular regulators for specific cyclin-dependent kinases, which function to drive the cell through the cell cycle. Authors show that in-vitro infection of vascular smooth muscle cells with Cytomegalovirus led to an increase in the expression of cyclin D1, which has a potential oncogene function. Additionally, the level of cyclin E increased, which is involved in the hyperphosphorylation and subsequent inactivation of pRb in addition to playing a critical role in allowing DNA synthesis.
116. Zhou YF, Guetta EM, Yu ZX, Finkel T, Epstein SE: Human cytomegalovirus increase modified low density lipoprotein uptake and scavenger receptor mRNA expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 1996, 98:2129-2138. The accumulation of lipid-laden foam cells, derived from macrophages, and vascular smooth muscle cells that occurs in atherosclerotic plaque formation depends on the uptake of oxidized low density lipoproteins via the scavenger receptor. Cytomegalovirus infection of human vascular smooth muscle cells resulted in an increase in modified low density lipoprotein uptake and stimulated class A scavenger receptor gene (SR-A) messenger RNA expression. Co-transfection of an IE72 but not IE84 expression plasmid and a plasmid containing an SR-A promoter/reporter gene construct enhanced scavenger-receptor promoter activity.
117. Burke CM, Theodore J, Dawkins KD, Yousem SA, Blank N, Billingham ME, Van-Kessel A, Jamieson SW, Oyer PE, Baldwin JC: Post transplant obliterative bronchiolitis and other late lung sequelae in human heart-lung transplantation. Chesr 1984, 86:824-829.
118. Yousem SA, Burke CM, Billingham ME. Pathologic pulmonary alterations in long-term human heart-lung transplantation. Hum Pathol 1985, 16:911-923.
119. Madden BP, Hodson ME, Tsang V, Radley-Smith R, Khaghani A, Yacoub M : Intermediate-term results of heart-lung transplantation for cystic fibrosis. Lancet 1992, 339:1583-1587.
120. Scott JP, Higenbottam TW, Sharples L, Clelland CA, Smyth RL, Stewart S, Wallwork J : Risk factors for obliterative bronchiolitis in heart-lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 1991, 51:813-817.
121. Yousem SA, Dauber JA, Keenan R, Paradis IL, Zeevi A, Griffith BP: Does histologic acute rejection in lung allografts predict the development of bronchiolitis obliterans? Transplantation 1991, 51:433-438.
122. Sharples LS, Scott JP, Dennis C, Higenbottam TW, Stewart S, Wreghitt T, Large SR, Wells SC, Wallwork J: Risk factors for survival following combined heart-lung transplantation: the first 100 patients. Transplantation 1994, 57:218-223.
123. Sharples LD, Tamm M, NcNeil K, Higenbottam TW, Stewart S, Wallwork J: Development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome in recipients of heart-lung transplantation - early risk factors. Transplantation 1996, 61:560-566.
124. Taylor PM, Rose ML, Yacoub MH: Expression of MHC antigens in normal human lungs and transplanted lungs with obliterative bronchiolitis. Transplantation 1989, 48:506-510.
125. 25 Harjula AL, Baldwin JC, Glanville AR, Tazelaar H, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Shumway NE: Human leukocyte antigen compatibility in heart-lung transplantation. J Heart Transplant 1987, 6: 162-166.
126. Opelz G, Wajciak T: The influence of HLA compatibility on graft survival after heart transplantation. N Engl J Med 1994, 330:816-819.
127. Keenan RJ, Lega ME, Dummer JS, Paradis IL, Dauber JH, Rabinowich H, et al.: Cytomegalovirus serologic status and postoperative infection correlated with risk of developing chronic rejection after pulmonary transplantation. Transplantation 1991, 51:433-438,
128. Duncan SR, Paradis IL, Yousem SA, Similo SL, Grgurich WF, Williams PA, Dauber JH, Griffith BP. Sequelae of cytomegalovirus pulmonary infections in lung allograft recipients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992, 146: 1419-1425.
129. Ettinger NA, Bailey TC, Trulock EP, Storch GA, Anderson D, Raab A, Spitznagel EL, Dresler C, Cooper JD: Cytomegalovirus infection and pneumonitis: impact after isolated lung transplantation. Washington University Lung Transplant Group. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993, 147:1017-1023.
130. Cooper JD, Patterson GA, Trulock EP: Results of single and bilateral lung transplantation in 131 consecutive recipients: Washington University Lung Transplant Group. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994, 107:460-470.
131. van der Bij W, Mannes GPM, de Boer WJ, The TH: Cytomegalovirus infections after heart and lung transplantation. In Annual of Cardiac Surgery. Edited by Yacoub M, Pepper J. London: Current Science; 1995: 179-187.
132. 32 Scott JP, Fradet G, Smyth RL, Mullins P, Pratt A, Clelland CA, Higenbottam T, Wallwork J: Prospective study of transbronchial biopsies in the management of heart-lung and single lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 1991, 10:626-637.
133. Baz MA, Layish DT, Govert JA, Howell DM, Lawrence CM, Davis RD, Tapson VF: Diagnostic yield of bronchoscopies after isolated lung transplantation. Chest 1996, 110:84-88.
134. International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: A working formulation for the standardisation of nomenclature and for clinical staging of chronic dysfunction in lung allografts. J Heart Lung Transplant 1993, 12:713-716.