Current state of cold hardiness research on fruit crops

Canadian Journal of Plant Science

Volumn 77, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 399-420

  Palonen, Pauliina ^a   Buszard, Deborah ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

^b MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Berries; Cold hardiness; Fruits; Small fruits; Stress; Winter hardiness

Indexed keywords

COLD HARDINESS; FRUIT CROP;

PRUNUS; PYRUS COMMUNIS; ROSACEAE;

EID: 0030820887     PISSN: 00084220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4141/P96-013     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Aaltonen, M. 1995. The effect of apple rootstocks YP and A2 on yield and winter hardiness of apple in Finland. Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B. Soil Plant Sci. 45: 202-205.
2. Abdallah, A. Y. and Palta, J. P. 1989. Changes in the freezing stress resistance of the cranberry leaf, flower bud, and fruit during growth and development. Acta Hortic. 241: 273-276.
3. Anderson, J. A. and Whitworth, J. 1993. Supercooling strawberry plants inoculated with ice-nucleation-active bacteria and treated with Frostgard. Hortscience 28: 828-830.
4. Andrews, P. K. and Proebsting, E. L., Jr. 1987. Effects of temperature on the deep supercooling characteristics of dormant and deacclimating sweet cherry flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 112: 334-340.
5. Andrews, P. K., Proebsting, E. L. and Gross, D. C. 1983. Differential thermal analysis and freezing injury of deacclimating peach and sweet cherry reproductive organs. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108: 755-759.
6. Aoun, M. F., Perry, K. B., Swallow, W. H., Werner, D. J. and Parker, M. L. 1993. Antitranspirant and cryoprotectant do not prevent peach freezing injury. Hortscience 28: 343.
7. Arora, R., Wisniewski, M. E. and Scorza, R. 1992. Cold acclimation in genetically related (sibling) deciduous and evergreen peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch). I. Seasonal changes in cold hardiness and polypeptides of bark and xylem tissues. Plant Physiol. 99: 1562-1568.
8. Ashworth, E. N. 1982. Properties of peach flower buds which facilitate supercooling. Plant Physiol. 70: 1475-1479.
9. Ashworth, E. N. 1984. Xylem development in Prunus flower buds and the relationship to deep supercooling. Plant Physiol. 74: 862-865.
10. Ashworth, E. N., Anderson, J. A. and Davis, G. A. 1985. Properties of ice nuclei associated with peach trees. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 110: 287-291.
11. Ashworth, E. N., Davis, G. A. and Wisniewski, M. E. 1989. The formation and distribution of ice within dormant and deacclimated peach flower buds. Plant Cell Environ. 12: 521-528.
12. Ashworth, E. N., Echlin, P., Pearce, R. S. and Hayes, T. L. 1988. Ice formation and tissue response in apple twigs. Plant Cell Environ. 11: 703-710.
13. Ashworth, E. N. and Rowse, D. J. 1982. Vascular development in dormant Prunus flower buds and its relationship to supercooling. Hortscience 17: 790-791.
14. Ashworth, E. N. and Wisniewski, M. E. 1991. Response of fruit tree tissues to freezing temperatures. Hortscience 26: 501-504.
15. Ashworth, E. N., Rowse, D. J. and Billmyer, L. A. 1983. The freezing of water in woody tissues of apricot and peach and the ralationship to freezing injury. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108: 299-303.
16. Bauer, M., Chaplin, C. E., Schneider, G. W., Barfield, B. J. and White G. M. 1976. Effects of evaporative cooling during dormancy on 'Redhaven' peach wood and fruit bud hardiness. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 101: 452-454.
17. Bédard, R. and Therrien, H. P. 1970. Influence de la nutrition potassique sur la résistance au froid du fraisier et changements dans la composition minérale au cours de l'endurcissement. Naturaliste Can. 97: 307-313.
18. Biermann, J., Stushnoff, C. and Burke, M. J. 1979. Differential thermal analysis and freezing injury in cold hardy blueberry flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 104: 444-449.
19. Bittenbender, B. C. and Howell, G. S. 1976. Cold hardiness of flower buds from selected highbush blueberry cultivars (Vaccinium australe Small). J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 101: 135-139.
20. Blanco, A. 1990. Effects of paclobutrazol and of ethephon on cropping and vegetative growth of 'Crimson Gold' nectarine trees. Sci. Hortic. 42: 65-73.
21. Bolduc, R. and Paquin, R. 1987. Comparaison de deux methodes d'evaluation de la tolerance au gel du fraisier preleve dans un sol gele. Can. J. Plant Sci. 67: 343-348.
22. Bourne, T. F. and Moore, J. N. 1991. Cold hardiness in grape cultivar development. Fruit Var. J. 45: 26-28.
23. Bourne, T. F. and Moore, J. N. 1992. Evaluation of cold hardiness of blackberry seedling populations. Hortscience 27: 151-153.
24. Bourne, T. F. and Moore, J. N. and George, M. F. 1991. Primary bud hardiness of four genotypes of grapes in Arkansas. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 116: 835-837.
25. Boyce, B. R. and Marini, R. P. 1978. Cold acclimation of ever-bearing strawberry blossoms. Hortscience 13: 543-544.
26. Boyce, B. R. and Reed, R. A. 1983. Effects of bed height and mulch on strawberry crown temperatures and winter injury. Adv. Strawberry Prod. 2: 12-14.
27. Brennan, R. M. 1991. The effects of simulated frost on black currant (Ribes nigrum L.). J. Hortic. Sci. 66: 607-612.
28. Brennan, R. M. and Jefferies, R. A. 1990. The use of chlorophyll fluorescence in assessment of low temperature hardiness in black currant (Ribes nigrum L.). Ann. Appl. Biol. 117: 667-672.
29. Brennan, R. M., Goodman, B. A. and Chudek, J. A. 1993. Freezing events in flowers of Ribes nigrum L. revealed by NMR microimaging. J. Hortic. Sci. 68: 919-924.
30. Bristow, P. R. and Hummel, R. L. 1993. Effect of Phytophtora fragariae var. rubi on yield components and cold hardiness of red raspberries. Acta Hortic. 352: 523-528.
31. Brown, D. M. and Blackburn, W. J. 1987. Impacts of freezing temperatures on crop production in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 67: 1167-1180.
32. Brown, S. K. and Cummins, J. N. 1988. Rootstock influenced peach flower bud survival after a natural freeze. Hortscience 23: 846-847.
33. Burak, M. and Eris, A. 1992. Relationships between frost resistance and carbohydrate, protein and lipid contents in buds of some peach cultivars. Acta Hortic. 315: 61-70.
34. Buszard, D. 1986. The effect of management system on winter survival and yield of raspberries in Quebec. Acta Hortic. 183: 175-181.
35. Byers, R. E. and Marini, R. P. 1994. Influence of blossom and fruit thinning on peach flower bud tolerance to an early spring freeze. Hortscience 29: 146-148.
36. Byrne, D. H. 1986. Mechanisms of spring freeze injury avoidance in peach. Hortscience 21: 1235-1236.
37. Callan, N. W. 1990. Dormancy effects on supercooling in deacclimated 'Meteor' tart cherry flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 115: 982-986.
38. Callesen, O. 1994. Performance of 'Discovery' apple on M.9, M.26 and MM.106 rootstocks at two densities. J. Hortic. Sci. 69: 305-313.
39. Cappiello, P. E. and Dunham, S. W. 1994. Seasonal variation in low-temperature tolerance of Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Hortscience 29: 302-304.
40. Caswell, K. L., Tyler, N. J. and Stushnoff, C. 1986 Cold hardening of in vitro apple and saskatoon shoot cultures. Hortscience 21: 1207-1209.
41. Chang, L. S., Iezzoni, A., Adams, G. and Howell, G. S. 1989. Leucostoma persoonii tolerance and cold hardiness among diverse peach genotypes. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 114: 482-485.
42. Coleman, W. K. 1985. Variations in cold resistance among apple cultivars during deacclimation. J. Exp. Bot. 36: 1159-1171.
43. Coleman, W. K. 1989. Electrical impedance and freezing injury in apple shoots. J. Hortic. Sci. 64: 249-257.
44. Coleman, W. K. 1992. A proposed winter-injury classification for apple trees on the northern fringe of commercial production. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72: 507-516.
45. Coleman, W. K. and Estabrooks, E. N. 1985 Chemical modification of cold hardiness in apple trees in Eastern Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 65: 969-975.
46. Coleman, W. K. and Estabrooks, E. N. 1988. An evaluation of the effect of plant growth regulators on cold hardiness in apple trees Can. J. Plant Sci. 68: 859-869.
47. Coleman, W. K. and Estabrooks, E. N. 1992. Enhancement of cold hardiness in apple trees by paclobutrazol, thidiazuron and flurprimidol. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72: 1267-1274.
48. Coleman, W. K., Estabrooks, E. N., O'Hara, M., Embleton, J. and King, R. R. 1992. Seasonal changes in cold hardiness, sucrose and sorbitol in apple trees treated with plant growth regulators. J. Hortic. Sci. 67: 429-435.
49. Craig, D. L. and Aalders, L. E. 1973. Response of 'Trent' and 'Canby' red raspberries to SADH applications. Hortscience 8: 313.
50. Dale, A. 1981. The tolerance of black currant flowers to induced frosts. Ann. Appl. Biol. 99: 99-106.
51. Dale, A. 1987. Some studies in spring frost tolerance in black currants (Ribes nigrum L.). Euphytica 36: 775-781.
52. Dale, A. and Heiberg, N. 1984. Studies in black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) on the relationship between frost tolerance in winter and spring and on the relationships of dehardening and rehardening in spring. Crop Res. 24: 73-83.
53. Dalman, P., Laurinen, E., Aaltonen, M. and Hiirsalmi, H. 1991. 'Ottawa' ja 'Muskoka' varmimmat vadelmalajikkeet. Maaseudun Tulevaisuuden Koetoiminta ja käytäntö -liite 48: 62.
54. Domoto, P. A. 1986. Winter injury effects on M.9 interstem apple trees. Compact Fruit Tree 19: 119-127.
55. Doughty, C. C., Crandall, P. C. and Shanks, C. H. Jr. 1972 Cold injury to red raspberries and the effect of premature defoliation and mite damage. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 97: 670-673.
56. Doughty, C. C. and Hemerick, G. A. 1975. Impedance as a measurement of blueberry bud hardiness. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 100: 115-118.
57. Durner, E. F. 1990a. Rootstock influence on flower bud hardiness and yield of 'Redhaven' peach. Hortscience 25: 172-173.
58. Durner, E. F. 1990b. Dormant pruning reduces rehardening of peach pistils after a winter thaw. Hortscience 25: 980.
59. Durner, E. F. and Gianfagna, T. J. 1988. Fall ethephon application increases peach flower bud resistance to low-temperature stress. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 113: 404-406.
60. Durner, E. F. and Gianfagna, T. J. 1990. Peach pistil growth inhibition and subsequent bloom delay by midwinter bud white-washing. Hortscience 25: 1222-1224.
61. Durner, E. F. and Gianfagna, T. J. 1991a. Ethephon prolongs dormancy and enhances supercooling in peach flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 116: 500-506.
62. Durner, E. F. and Gianfagna, T. J. 1991b. Peach pistil carbohydrate and moisture contents and growth during controlled deacclimation following ethephon application. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 116: 507-511.
63. Durner, E. F. and Gianfagna, T. J. 1992. Interactions of ethephon, whitewashing, and dormant oil on peach pistil growth, hardiness, and yield. Hortscience 27: 104-105.
64. Durner, E. F. and Goffreda, J. C. 1992. Rootstock-induced differences in flower bud phenology in peach. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117: 690-697.
65. Eaton, G. W. and Mahrt, B. J. 1977. Cold hardiness testing of cranberry flower buds. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57: 461-465.
66. Embree, C. 1988. Apple rootstock cold hardiness evaluation. Compact Fruit Tree 21: 99-105.
67. Embree, C. G. and McRae, K. B. 1991. An exploratory study of reciprocal apple rootstock and scion hardiness with two methods of assessment. Hortscience 26: 1523-1525.
68. Faust, M., Liu, D., Line, M. J. and Stutte, G. W. 1995. Conversion of bound to free water in endodormant buds of apple is an incremental process. Acta Hortic. 395: 113-118.
69. Faust, M., Liu, D., Millard, M. M. and Stutte, G. W. 1991. Bound versus free water in dormant apple buds - a theory for endodormancy. Hortscience 26: 887-890.
70. Fear, C. D., Lauer, F. I., Luby, J. J., Stucker, R. L. and Stushnoff, C. 1985. Genetic components of variance for winter injury, fall growth cessation, and off-season flowering in blueberry progenies. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 110: 262-266.
71. Fennell, A. and Hoover, E. 1991. Photoperiod influences growth, bud dormancy, and cold acclimation in Vitis labruscana and V. riparia. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 116: 270-273.
72. Filiti, N. and Neri, D. 1989. Cold damage in fruit bud tissues of pear. Acta Hortic. 256: 133-136.
73. Flinn, C. L. and Ashworth, E. N. 1994. Blueberry flower-bud hardiness is not estimated by differential thermal analysis. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119: 295-298.
74. Gagnon, B., Desjardins, Y. and Bedard, R. 1990. Fruiting as a factor in accumulation of carbohydrates and nitrogen and in fall cold hardening of day neutral strawberry roots. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 115: 520-525.
75. Gianfagna, T. J. 1991. The effect of LAB 173711 and ethephon on time of flowering and cold hardiness of peach flower buds. J. Plant Growth Regul. 10: 191-195.
76. Gianfagna, T. J., Durner, E. F. and Teiger, G. S. 1989. Reducing low temperature injury to peach flower buds with ethephon. Acta Hortic. 239: 203-206.
77. Goulart, B. L. and Demchak, K. 1994. Cryoprotectants prove ineffective for frost protection on strawberries. J. Small Fruit Viticulture 2(3): 45-51.
78. Granger, R. L. 1982. Pear growing in Quebec. Acta Hortic. 124: 43-50.
79. Granger, R. L. and Hogue, E. J. 1968. Effect of Alar on winter-hardiness of raspberries. Can. J. Plant Sci. 48: 100-101.
80. Granger, R. L. and Rousselle, G. L. 1984. Cold hardiness rating of pear cultivars and selections. Acta Hortic. 161: 69-73.
81. Gross, D. C., Proebsting, E. L., Jr. and Andrews, P. K. 1984. The effects of ice nucleation-active bacteria on temperatures of ice nucleation and freeze injury of Prunus flower buds at various stages of development. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 109: 375-380.
82. Gupton, C. L. 1983. Variability among rabbiteye blueberry cultivars for tolerance of flowers to frost. Hortscience 18: 713-714.
83. Gwozdecki, J. 1989. Frost injury assessment in currant collection at Skierniwice. Acta Hortic. 262: 151-155.
84. Hall, I. V. and Newbery, R. J. 1972. Floral development in normal and frost-injured cranberries. Hortscience 7: 269-271.
85. Hall, J. W. and Quamme, H. A. 1994. Winter freezes of fruit trees in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia: Relationship with the Pacific North America teleconnection and the El Nino/Southem Oscillation. Can. J. Plant Sci. 74: 841-846.
86. Hamman, R. A., Dami, L-E., Walsh, T. M. and Stushnoff, C. 1996. Seasonal carbohydrate changes and cold hardiness of Chardonnay and Riesling grapevines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 47: 31-36.
87. Hancock, J. F., Nelson, J. W., Bittenbender, H. C., Callow, P. W., Cameron, J. S., Krebs, S. L., Pritts, M. P. and Schumann, C. M. 1987. Variation among highbush blueberry cultivars in susceptibility to spring frost. J. Am. Soc. Hoitic. Sci. 112: 702-706.
88. Harber, R. M., Nyczepir, A. P., Yadava, U. L. and Sharpe, R. R. 1992. Rootstock, pruning, and soil fumigation in relation to dormancy and cold hardiness of 'Redhaven' peach. Hortscience 27: 99-100.
89. Harris, R. E. 1973. Relative hardiness of strawberry cultivars at three times of the winter. Can. J. Plant Sci. 53: 147-152.
90. Hiirsalmi, H. M. 1989. Breeding Rubus species in Finland. Acta Hortic. 262:75-81.
91. Hiirsalmi, H. M. and Hietaranta, T. P. 1989. Winter injuries to highbush and lowbush blueberries in Finland. Acta Hortic. 241: 221-226.
92. Himelrick, D. G., Pool, R. M. and McInnis, P. J. 1991. Cryoprotectants influence freezing resistance of grapevine bud and leaf tissue. Hortscience 26: 406-407.
93. Howell, G. S. and Perry, R. L. 1990. Influence of cherry rootstock on the cold hardiness of twigs of the sweet cherry scion cultivar. Sci. Hortic. 43: 103-108.
94. Hummer, K., Fuchigami, L. H., Peters, V. and Bell, N. 1995. Cold hardiness in Rubus. Fruit Var. J. 49: 52-58.
95. Jefferies, R. A. and Brennan, R. M. 1994. Effects of low temperature on the growth of blackcurrant cultivars. Sci. Hortic. 57: 293-301.
96. Jennings, D. L. and Cormack, M. R. 1969. Factors affecting the water content and dormancy of overwintering raspberry canes. Hortic. Res. 9: 18-25.
97. Jennings, D. L., Carmichael, E. and Costin, J. J. 1972. Variation in the time of acclimation of raspberry canes in Scotland and Ireland and its significance for hardiness. Hortic. Res. 12: 187-200.
98. Jones, H. G. and Higgs, K. H. 1983. Cell sap osmotic potentials and frost tolerance in black currants (Ribes nigrum L.). J. Hortic. Sci. 58: 261-266.
99. Kadir, S. A. and Proebsting, E. L. 1993. Dead Prunus flower-bud primordia retain deep-supercooling properties. Hortscience 28: 831-832.
100. Kadir, S. A. and Proebsting, E. L. 1994. Screening sweet cherry selections for dormant floral bud hardiness. Hortscience 29: 104-106.
101. Kaukovirta, E. and Syri, P. 1985. An attempt to reanalyze winter injury of apple trees in Finland during this century. Acta Hortic. 168: 73-83.
102. Keep, E., Grafton, W. H., Knight, V. H. and Cumming, I. G. 1983. The response of black currant cultivars and selections to spring frost. J. Hortic. Sci. 58: 535-540.
103. Ketchie, D. O. 1985. Cold resistance of apple trees through the year and its relationship to the physiological stages. Acta Hortic. 168: 131-137.
104. Ketchie, D. O., Beeman, C. H. and Ballard, A. L. 1972. Relationship of electrolytic conductance to cold injury and acclimation in fruit trees. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 97: 403-406.
105. Ketchie, D. O. and Kammereck, R. 1987. Seasonal variation of cold resistance in Malus woody tissue as determined by differential thermal analysis and viability tests. Can. J. Bot. 65: 2640-2645.
106. Ketchie, D. O. and Murren, C. 1976. Use of cryoprotectants on apple and pear trees. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 101: 57-59.
107. Khanizadeh, S. 1991. Controlling temperature by microcomputer. Hortscience 26: 607.
108. Khanizadeh, S., Buszard, D., Fanous, M. A. and Zarkadas, C. G. 1989. Effect of crop load on seasonal variation in chemical composition and spring frost hardiness of apple flower buds. Can. J. Plant Sci. 69: 1277-1284.
109. Khanizadeh, S., Buszard, D. and Zarkadas, C. G. 1992. Effect of crop load on hardiness, protein and amino acids content of apple flower buds at the wintering stage and the beginning of growth. J. Plant Nutr. 15:2441-2455.
110. Ki, W. K. and Warmund, M. R. 1992. Low-temperature injury to strawberry floral organs at several stages of development. Hortscience 27: 1302-1304.
111. Kolodziejczak, P. and Hamer, P. J. 1985. Preliminary results of effect of some chemicals on spring frost tolerance and fruit set of apple trees and blackcurrant bushes. Acta Hortic. 168: 147-152.
112. Kraut, J. L., Walsh, C. S. and Ashworth, E. N. 1986. Acclimation and winterhardiness patterns in the eastern thornless blackberry. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 111: 347-352.
113. Kuroda, H. and Sagisaka, S. 1993. Ultrastructural changes in cortical cells of apple (Malus pumila Mill.) associated with cold hardiness. Plant Cell Physiol. 34: 357-365.
114. Lamb, R. C. 1982. Flower bud survival of pear cultivars following a spring frost. Acta Hortic. 124: 27-31.
115. Lasheen, A. M., Chaplin, C. E. and Harmon, R. N. 1970. Biochemical comparison of fruit buds in five peach cultivars of varying degrees of cold hardiness. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 95: 177-181.
116. Layne, R. E. C. 1982. Cold hardiness of peaches and nectarines following a test winter. Fruit Var. J. 36: 90-98.
117. Layne, R. E. C. 1989. Breeding cold hardy peach cultivars for Canada. Acta Hortic. 254: 73-78.
118. Layne, R. E. C. 1992. Breeding cold hardy peaches and nectarines. Plant Breeding Rev. 10: 271-308.
119. Layne, R. E. C. and Gadsby, M. F. 1995. Determination of cold hardiness and estimation of potential breeding value of apricot germplasm. Fruit Var. J. 49: 242-248.
120. Leonardi, O., Leonardi, M. and Catara, A. 1989. Antagonistic bacteria as a biological control against ice nucleation active Pseudomonas on strawberry. Acta Hortic. 265: 513-520.
121. Lindemann, J. and Suslow, T. V. 1987. Competition between ice nucleation-active wild type and ice nucleation-deficient deletion mutant strains of Pseudomonas syringae and P. fluorescens Biovar I and biological control of frost injury on strawberry blossoms. Phytopathology 77: 882-886.
122. Linden, L., Rita, H. and Suojala, T. 1996. Logit models for estimating lethal temperatures in apple. Hortscience 31: 91-93.
123. Lu, S. and Rieger, M. 1993. Effect of temperature preconditioning on ovary freezing tolerance of fully opened peach flowers. J. Hortic. Sci. 68: 343-347.
124. Luby, J. J. 1991. Breeding cold-hardy fruit crops in Minnesota. Hortscience 26: 507-512.
125. Maage, F. 1986. The effect of growth regulators on bud dormancy and winter injury in red raspberry. Acta Hortic. 179: 149-156.
126. Malone, S. R. and Ashworth, E. N. 1990. Freezing stress response in woody tissues observed using low-temperature scanning electron microscopy and freeze substitution techniques. Plant Physiol. 95: 871-881.
127. Marini, R. P. and Boyce, B. R. 1977. Susceptibility of crown tissues of 'Catskill' strawberry plants to low-temperature injury. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 102: 515-516.
128. Marini, R. P. and Boyce, B. R. 1979. Influence of low temperatures during dormancy on growth and development of 'Catskill' strawberry plants. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 104: 159-162.
129. Mather, P. J. C., Modlibowska, I. and Keep, E. 1980. Spring frost resistance in black currants (Ribes nigrum L.) Euphytica 29: 793-800.
130. Mattheis, J. P. and Ketchie, D. O. 1990. Changes in parameters of the plasmalemma ATPase during cold acclimation of apple (Malus domestica) tree bark tissues. Physiol. Plant. 78: 616-622.
131. Montano, J. M., Rebhuhn, M., Hummer, K. and Lagerstedt, H. B. 1987. Differential thermal analysis for large-scale evaluation of pear cold hardiness. Hortscience 22: 1335-1336.
132. Montesinos, E. and Vilardell, P. 1989. On the role of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae in blast of pear trees in Catalunya, Spain. Acta Hortic. 256: 143-151.
133. Montesinos, E. and Vilardell, P. 1991. Relationships among population levels of Pseudomonas syringae, amount of ice nuclei and incidence of blast of dormant flower buds in commercial pear orchards in Catalunya, Spain. Phytopathology 81: 113-119.
134. Moore, J. N. and Skirvin, R. M. 1990. Blackberry management. Pages 214-244 in G. J. Galletta and D. G. Himelrick, eds. Small fruit crop management. Prentice Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey.
135. Muthalif, M. M. and Rowland, L. J. 1994. Identification of dehydrin-like proteins responsive to chilling in floral buds of blueberry (Vaccinium, section Cyanococcus). Plant Physiol. 104: 1439-1447.
136. Nestby, R. 1992. Screening red raspberry (Rubus idaeits L.) germplasm for freeze tolerance in Norway. Acta Agric. Scand., Sect. B, Soil and Plant Sci. 42: 189-196.
137. Nestby, R. and Kongsrud, K. L. 1993. Effect of broadcasted and fertigated N and raised beds on yield and freeze injury of the red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.). Norwegian J. Agric. Sci. 7: 249-259.
138. Nybom, H. 1992. Freeze damage to flower buds of some apple cultivars. J. Hortic. Sci. 67: 171-177.
139. Ourecky, D. K. and Reich, J. E. 1976. Frost tolerance in strawberry cultivars. Hortscience 11: 413-414.
140. Paquin, R., Bolduc, R., Zizka, J., Pelletier, G. and Lechausser, P. 1989. Tolérance au gel et teneur en sucres et en proline du collet du fraisier (Fragaria ananassa Duch.) durant l'hiver. Can. J. Plant Sci. 69: 945-954.
141. Patten, K., Neuendorff, E., Nimr, G., Clark, J. R. and Fernandez, G. 1991. Cold injury of southern blueberries as a function of germplasm and season of flower bud development. Hortscience 26: 18-20.
142. Privé, J.-P. and Zhang, M. I. N. 1996. Estimating cold stress in 'Beautiful Arcade' apple roots using electrical impedance analysis. HortTechnology 6: 54-58.
143. Proebsting, E. L., Jr. and Gross, D. C. 1988. Field evaluations of frost injury to deciduous fruit trees as influenced by ice nucleation-active Pseudomonas syringae. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 113: 498-506.
144. Quamme, H. A. 1974. An exothermic process involved in the freezing injury to flower buds of several Prunus species. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 99: 315-318.
145. Quamme, H. A. 1976. Relationship of the low temperature exotherm to apple and pear production in North America. Can. J. Plant Sci. 56: 493-500.
146. Quamme, H. A. 1977. The relationship of deep supercooling to the northern limit of pear survival and the potential for breeding cold resistant cultivars in North America. Acta Hortic. 69: 295-300.
147. Quamme, H. A. 1978. Mechanism of supercooling in overwintering peach flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 103: 57-61.
148. Quamme, H. A. 1983. Relationship of air temperature to water content and supercooling of overwintering peach flower buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108: 697-701.
149. Quamme, H. A. 1986. Use of thermal analysis to measure freezing resistance of grape buds. Can. J. Plant Sci. 66: 945-952.
150. Quamme, H. A. 1990. Cold hardiness of apple rootstocks. Compact Fruit Tree 23: 11-16.
151. Quamme, H. A. 1991. Application of thermal analysis to breeding fruit crops for increased cold hardiness. Hortscience 26: 513-517.
152. Quamme, H. A. and Brownlee, R. T. 1989. Observation of winter injury to the roots of apple trees associated with sprinkler irrigation pattern. Can. J. Plant. Sci. 69: 617-621.
153. Quamme, H. A. and Gusta, L. V. 1987. Relationship of ice nucleation and water status to freezing patterns in dormant peach flower buds. Hortscience 22: 465-467.
154. Quamme, H. A., Chen, P. M. and Gusta, L. V. 1982a. Relationship of deep supercooling and dehydration resistance to freezing injury in dormant stem tissues of 'Starkrimson Delicious' apple and 'Siberian C' peach. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 107: 299-304.
155. Quamme, H. A., Layne, R. E. C. and Ronald, W. G. 1982b. Relationship of supercooling to cold hardiness and the Northern distribution of several cultivated and native Prunus species and hybrids. Can. J. Plant. Sci. 62: 137-148.
156. Quamme, H., Stushnoff, C. and Weiser, C. J. 1972a. The relationship of exotherms to cold injury in apple stem tissues. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 97: 608-613.
157. Quamme, H., Stushnoff, C. and Weiser, C. J. 1972b. Winter hardiness of several blueberry species and cultivars in Minnesota. Hortscience 7: 500-502.
158. Quamme, H., Weiser, C. J. and Stushnoff, C. 1973. The mechanism of freezing injury in xylem of winter apple twigs. Plant Physiol. 51: 273-277.
159. Raese, J. T., Williams, M. W. and Billingsley H. D. 1978. Cold hardiness, sorbitol, and sugar levels of apple shoots as influenced by controlled temperature and season. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 103: 796-801.
160. Rajashekar, C., Westwood, M. N. and Burke, M. J. 1982. Deep supercooling and cold hardiness in genus Pyrus. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 107: 968-972.
161. Redalen, G. 1982. Winter hardiness, fruit size, amount of spines, and ease of fruit abscission in offspring from 12 raspberry cultivars. Meldingar fra Norges Landbrukhogskole 61: Nr. 10.
162. Ristic, Z. and Ashworth, E. N. 1995. Response of xylem ray parenchyma cells of supercooling wood tissues to freezing stress: microscopic study. Int. J. Plant Sci. 156: 784-792.
163. Robbins, J. A. and Doughty C. C. 1980. Influence of surfactants on blossom cold hardiness and yield in highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 60: 255-258.
164. Säkö, J. and Hiirsalmi, H. 1980. Winterhardiness and productivity of the red raspberry in Finland. Acta Hortic. 112: 221-227.
165. Säkö, J. and Laurinen, E. 1986. Apple trees in ridge planting. Acta hort. 160: 285-292.
166. Schaffer, K. and Wisniewski, M. 1989. Development of the amorphous layer (protective layer) in xylem parenchyma of cv. Golden Delicious apple, cv. Loring peach, and willow. Am. J. Bot. 76: 1569-1582.
167. Seeley, S. D., Damavandy, H., Anderson, J. L., Renquist, R. and Callan, N. W. 1992. Autumn-applied growth regulators influence leaf retention, bud hardiness, bud and flower size, and endodormancy in peach and cherry. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117: 203-208.
168. Seyedbagheri, M. M. and Fallahi, E. 1994. Physiological and environmental factors and horticultural practices influencing cold hardiness of grapevines. J. Small Fruit Viticulture 2(4): 3-38.
169. Sieckmann, S. and Boe, A. A. 1978. Low temperature increases reducing and total sugar concentrations in leaves of boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) and cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.). Hortscience 13: 439-440.
170. Slater, J. V., Warmund, M. R., George, M. F. and Ellersieck, M. R. 1991. Deacclimation of winter hardy 'Seyval Blanc' grape tissue after exposure to 16°C. Sci. Hortic. 45: 273-285.
171. Smith, M. W., Carroll, B. L. and Taylor, G. G. 1994. Cold injury of peach and nectarine cultivars after a fall freeze. Hortscience 29: 821.
172. Smolarz, K. 1989. Response of some highbush blueberry cultivars (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) to low winter temperatures. Acta Hortic. 241: 227-231.
173. Spiers, J. M. 1978. Effect of stage of bud development on cold injury in rabbiteye blueberry. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 103: 452-455.
174. Spotts, R. A. and Chen, P. M. 1984. Cold hardiness and temperature responses of healthy and mildew-infected terminal buds of apple during dormancy. Phytopathology 74: 542-544.
175. Stone, W., Idle, D. B. and Brennan, R. M. 1993. Freezing events within overwintering buds of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.). Ann. Bot. 72: 613-617.
176. Strang, J. G., Lombard, P. B. and Westwood, M. N. 1980. Effects of tree vigor and bloom delay by evaporative cooling on frost hardiness of 'Bartlett' pear buds, flowers, and small fruit. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 105: 108-110.
177. Strauch, H. and Gruppe, W. 1985. Results of laboratory tests for winterhardiness of P. avium cultivars and interspecific cherry hybrids (Prunus x spp.). Acta Hortic. 169: 281-287.
178. Stushnoff, C. 1972. Breeding and selection methods for cold hardiness in deciduous fruit crops. Hortscience 7: 10-13.
179. Stushnoff, C., Remmele, R. L. Jr., Essensee, V. and McNeil, M. 1993. Low temperature induced biochemical mechanisms: implications for cold acclimation and de-acclimation. In M. B. Jackson and C. R. Black, eds. Interacting stresses on plants in a changing climate. NATO ASI Series, Vol. I 16. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany.
180. Takeda, F., Arora, R., Wisniewski, M. E., Davis, G. A. and Warmund, M. R. 1993. Assessment of freeze injury in 'Boskoop Giant' black currant buds. Hortscience 28: 652-654.
181. Turner, J. M., Tanino, K. K. and Stushnoff, C. 1993. Evaluation of low temperature hardiness of strawberry plants under field and controlled conditions. Can. J. Plant Sci. 73: 1123-1125.
182. Vertucci, C. W. and Stushnoff, C. 1992. The state of water in acclimating vegetative buds from Malus and Amelanchier and its relationship to winter hardiness. Physiol. Plant. 86: 503-511.
183. Wallner, S. J., Wu, M-T. and Anderson-Krengel, S. J. 1986. Changes in extracellular polysaccharides during cold acclimation of cultured pear cells. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 111: 769-773.
184. Wample, R. L. and Bary, A. 1992. Harvest date as a factor in carbohydrate storage and cold hardiness of 'Cabemet Sauvignon' grapevines. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117: 32-36.
185. Wample, R. L., Reisenauer, G., Bary, A. and Schuetze, F. 1990. Microcomputer-controlled freezing, data acquisition and analysis system for cold hardiness evaluation. Hortscience 25: 973-976.
186. Warmund, M. R. 1993. Ice distribution in 'Earliglow' strawberry crowns and tissue recovery following extracellular freezing. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 118: 644-648.
187. Warmund, M. R. and George, M. F. 1989. Freezing avoidance by supercooling in floral buds and canes of 'Shawnee' blackberry. Acta Hortic. 262: 333-340.
188. Warmund, M. R. and George, M. F. 1990. Freezing survival and supercooling in primary and secondary buds of Rubus spp. Can. J. Plant Sci. 70: 893-904.
189. Warmund, M. R., Autio, W. R., Barden, J. A., Cummins, J. N., Domoto, P. A., Embree, C. G., Granger, R. L., Morrison, F. D., Schupp, J. R. and Young, E. 1996. Blackheart injury in 'Starkspur Supreme Delicious' on 15 rootstocks in the 1984 NC-140 cooperative planting. Fruit Var. J. 50: 55-62.
190. Warmund, M. R., George, M. F. and Cumbie, B. G. 1988. Supercooling in 'Darrow' blackberry buds. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 113: 418-422.
191. Warmund, M. R., George, M. F., Ellersieck, M. R. and Slater J. V. 1989a. Susceptibility of blackberry tissues to freezing injury after exposure to 16C. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 114: 795-800.
192. Warmund, M., George, M. and Takeda, F. 1991. Supercooling in floral buds of 'Danka' black and 'Red Lake' red currants. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 116: 1030-1034.
193. Warmund, M. R., Starbuck, C. J. and George, M. F. 1989b. Freezing tolerance of tissue cultured Rubus plants. Fruit Var. J. 43: 109-114.
194. Warmund, M. R., Takeda, F. and Davis, G. A. 1992. Supercooling and extracellular ice formation in differentiating buds of eastern thornless blackberry. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 117: 941-945.
195. Westwood, M. N. 1993. Temperate-zone pomology. Physiology and culture. 3rd ed. Timber Press, Oregon. 523 pp.
196. Wildung, D. K. and Sargent, K. 1989. The effect of snow depth on winter survival and productivity of Minnesota blueberries. Acta Hortic. 241: 232-237.
197. Wisniewski, M. and Ashworth, E. N. 1986. A comparison of seasonal ultrastructural changes in stem tissues of peach (Prunus persica) that exhibit contrasting mechanisms of cold hardiness. Bot. Gaz. 147: 407-417.
198. Wisniewski, M., Davis, G. and Schaffer, K. 1991. Mediation of deep supercooling of peach and dogwood by enzymatic modifications in cell-wall structure. Planta 184: 254-260.
199. Wisniewski, M., Lightner, G., Davis, G. and Schiavone, M. 1990. System configuration for microcomputer-controlled, low-temperature differential thermal analysis. Comput. Electron. Agric. 5: 223-232.
200. Wolf, T. K. and Cook, M. K. 1994. Cold hardiness of dormant buds of grape cultivars: comparison of thermal analysis and field survival. Hortscience 29: 1453-1455.
201. Zatylny, A. M., Proctor, J. T. A. and Sullivan, J. A. 1993. Screening red raspberry for cold hardiness in vitro. Hortscience 28: 740-741.
202. Zraly, B. 1978. Frost hardiness of raspberry canes. Acta Hortic. 81: 129-135.
203. Zurawicz, E. and Dominikowski, J. 1993. Influence of low winter temperatures on growth and fruiting of 'Elsanta' runner plants in Poland. Acta Hortic. 348: 389-391.
204. Zurawicz, E. and Stushnoff, C. 1977. Influence of nutrition on cold tolerance of 'Redcoat' strawberries. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 102: 342-346.