Prognosis of spinal cord injury. The meaning of clinical and electrophysiological findings;Zur Prognose traumatischer Ruckenmarklasionen. Bedeutung klinischer und elektrophysiologischer Untersuchungsbefunde

Nervenarzt

Volumn 68, Issue 6, 1997, Pages 485-495

  Curt, A ^a   Dietz, V ^a  

^a BALGRIST UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

clinical examination; electrophysiology; prognosis of motor functions; spinal cord injury

Indexed keywords

BLADDER FUNCTION; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; EVOKED RESPONSE; HUMAN; PROGNOSIS; QUADRIPLEGIA; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; ANIMAL; CLASSIFICATION; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; ELECTRODIAGNOSIS; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; SPINAL CORD; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING; ANIMALS; ELECTRODIAGNOSIS; HUMANS; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; PROGNOSIS; SPINAL CORD; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION;

EID: 0030818013     PISSN: 00282804     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s001150050151     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Aljure J, Eltorai I, Bradley WE, Lin JE, Johnson B (1985) Carpal tunnel syndrome in paraplegic patients. Paraplegia 23:182-196
2. Argyropoulos CJ, Panayiotopoulos CP, Scarpalezos S (1978) F-and M-wave conduction velocity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Muscle Nerve 1:479-485
3. Ashby P, Verner M, Lightfoot E (1974) Segmental reflex pathway in spinal shock and spinal spasticity in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 37:1352-1360
4. Barker AT, Freestone IL, Jalinous R, Merton PA, Morton HB (1985) Magnetic stimulation on the human brain. J Physiol (Lond) 369:3
5. Bedbrook GM (1987) The development and care of spinal cord paralysis (1918 to 1986). Paraplegia 25:172-184
6. Berger AR, Shahani ST (1989) Electrophysiologic evaluation of spinal cord motor conduction. Muscle Nerve 12:976-980
7. Beric A, Dimitrijevic MR, Sharkey PC, Sherwood AM (1986) Cortical potentials evoked by epidural stimulation of the cervical and thoracic spinal cord in man. Electrocenphalogr Clin Neurophysiol 65:102-110
8. Beric A, Light JK (1988) Correlation of bladder dysfunction and lumbosacral somatosensory evoked potential S-wafe abnormality in spinal cord-injured patients. Neurourol Urodyn 7.131-140
9. Beric A (1992) Cortical somatosensory evoked potentials in spinal cord injury patients. J Neurol Sci A 107:50-59
10. Berlit P, Klotsch F, Röther J, Assmus HP, Daffershofer M, Schwartz A (1992) Spinal cord infarction: MRI and MEP findings in three cases. J Spinal Dis 5:212-216
11. Betts CD, Jones SJ, Fowler CG, Fowler CJ (1994) Erectile dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: associated neurological and neurophysiological deficites, and treatment of the condition. Brain 117:1303-1310
12. Bischoff C, Schoenle PW, Conrad B (1992) Increased F-wave duration in patients with spasticity. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 32:449-453
13. Blaik Z, McGarry J, Daura R (1989) Peripheral neuropathy in spinal injured patients. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 29:459-472
14. Blaivas JG, Awad SA, Bissada N, Khanna OP, Krane RJ, Wein AJ, Yalla S (1982) Urodynamic procedure recommendations of the Urodynamic Society. I. Procedures that should be available for routine practise. Neurourol Urodyn 1:51
15. Blaivas JG, Sinha HP, Zayed AAH, Labib KB (1981) Detrusor-external sphincter dys-synergia: a detailed electromyographic study. J Urol 125:545-548
16. Boltshauser E, Isler W, Bucher HU, Friderich H (1981) Permanent flaccid paraplegia in children with thoracic spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 19:227-234
17. Bosch A, Stauffer ES, Nickel V (1971) Incomplete traumatic quadriplegia: a ten year review. JAMA 216:473-478
18. Bracken MB, Holford TR (1993) Effects of timing of methylprednisolone or naloxone administration on recovery of segmental and long-tract neurological function in NASCIS 2. J Neurosurg 79:500-507
19. Brandstater ME, Dinsdale SM (1976) Electrophysiotogical studies in the assessment of spinal cord lesions. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 57:70-74
20. Brouwer B, Burgaresti J, Ashby P (1992) Changes in cortiospinal facilitation of lower limb spinal motor neurons after spinal cord lesions. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55 20-24
21. Burgio KL, Engel BT, Quilter RE, Arena VC (1991) The relationship between external anal and external urethral sphincter activity in continent women. Neurourol Urodyn 10:555-562
22. Calancie B, Broton JG, Klose KJ, Traad M, Difini J, Ayyar R (1993) Evidence of alterations in presynaptic inhibition contribute to segmental hypo- and hyperexcitability after spinal cord injury in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 89:177-186
23. Chabot R,York DH, Watts C, Waugh WA (1985) Somatosensory evoked potentials in normal subjects and spinal cord injured patients. J Neurosurg 63:544-551
24. Chang CW, Lien IN (1991) Estimate of motor conduction in human spinal cord injury. Muscle Nerve 14:990-996
25. Clarke CE, Modarres-Sadeghi H, Twomey JA, Burt AA (1994) Prognostic value of cortical stimulation in spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 32:554-560
26. Crenna P, Conci F, Boselli L (1989) Changes in spinal reflex excitability in brain-dead humans. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 73:206-214
27. Crozier KS, Graziant V, Ditunno JF, Herbison GJ (1991) Spinal cord injury: Prognosis for ambulation based on sensory examination in patients who are initially motor complete. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 72 119-121
28. Crozier KS, Ling Ling Cheng BS, Graziani V, Zorn G, Herbison G, Ditunno JF (1992) Spinal cord injury: prognosis for ambulation based on quadriceps recovery. Paraplegia 30:762-767
29. Curt A, Dietz V (1996a) Neurographic assessment of intramedullar motoneurone lesions in cervical spinal cord injury: consequences for hand function. Spinal Cord 34:326-332
30. Curt A, Dietz V (1996b) Ambulatory capacity in spinal cord injury: significance of somatosensory evoked potentials and ASIA protocols in predicting outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil (in press)
31. Curt A, Dietz V (1996c) Traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: Relation between somatosensory evoked potentials, neurological deficit and hand function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 77 48-53
32. Curt A, Dietz V (1996d) Nerve conduction study in cervical spinal cord injury: significance for hand function. Neuro Rehabil 7:165-173
33. Curt A, Keck ME, Dietz V (1997a) Clinical value of F-wave in traumatic cervical spinals cord injury. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol (in press)
34. Curt A, Rodic B, Schurch B, Dietz V (1997b) Recovery of bladder function in patients with acute spinal cord injury: significance of ASIA scores and SSEP. Spinal Cord (in press)
35. Curtin M (1994) Development of a tetraplegic hand assessment and splinting protocol. Paraplegia 22:159-169
36. Deldovici NL, Fowler CJ (1995) Clinical value of the pudendal somatosensory evoked potentials. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 96:509-515
37. Demagogne D, Zafonte RD, Herbison GJ, Ditunno IF (1991) Triceps strength as a predictor of daily self-care in quadriplegics. J Am Para Soc 14:94
38. Desmedt J, Noel PS (1973) Average cerebral evoked potentials in the evaluation of lesions of the sensory nerves and the somatosensory pathway. In: Desmedt JE (ed) New development in electromyography and clinical neurophysiology, vol 2 Karger, Basel, pp 352-371
39. Diamamopoulos E, Zander OP (1967) Exitability of motor neurones in spinal shock in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 30:427-431
40. Dietz V (1996) Querschnittlähmung. In: Brandt T et al. (Hrsg) Psychiatrie, Neurologie, Klinische Psychologie. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart
41. Dietz V, Young RR (1996) The syndromes of spinal cord dysfunction. In Brandt T et al. (eds) Neurological disorders course and treatment, chapter 58, Academic Press, San Diego, pp 641-652
42. Dimitrijevic MR, Eaton WJ, Sherwood AM, Van Der Linden C (1988) Assessment of corticospinal tract integrity of human chronic spinal cord injury. In: Ducker DB, Brown RH (eds) Non-invasive stimulation of brain and spinal cord:fundamentals and clinical applications. Liss, New York, pp 242-253
43. Ditunno JF (1992) New spinal cord injury standards, 1992. Paraplegia 30:90-91
44. Ditunno JF, Stover SL, Freed MM, Ahn JH (1992) Motor recovery of the upper extremities in traumatic quadriplegia: a multicenter study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil: 73:431-436
45. Ditunno JF, Young W, Donovan WH, Creasy G (1994) The international standards booklet for neurological and functional classification of spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 32 70-80
46. Donovan WH, Bedbrook GM (1980) Sensory and motor activity in the posterior primary rami following complete spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 61:133-138
47. Donovan WH, Wilkerson MA, Rossi D, Mechoulam F, Frankowski RF (1990) A test of the ASIA guidelines for classification of spinal cord injuries. J Neuro Rehab 4:39-53
48. Dressnandt J, Auer C, Conrad B (1995) Influence of baclofen upon the alpha-motoneuron in spasticity by means of F-wave analysis. Muscle Nerve 18:103-107
49. Dvorak J, Herdmann J,Vohanka S (1992) Motor evoked potentials by means of magnetic stimulation in disorders of the spine. Method Clin Neurophysiol 3:45-64
50. Eisen A, Schomer D, Melmed C (1977) The application of F-wave measurements in the differentiation of proximal and distal upper limb entrapments. Neurology 27 662-668
51. Eisen A (1992) Cortical and peripheral nerve magnetic stimulation. Methods Clin Neurophysiol 3:65-84
52. Fess EE, Phillips CA (1987) Hand splinting:principles and methods, 2nd ed. Mosby, St Louis
53. Fierro B, Raimondo D, Modica A (1990) Analysis of F-response in upper motoneuron lesions. Acta Neurol Scand 82:319-334
54. Foo D, Subrahmanyan TS, Rossnier AB (1981) Posttraumatic acute anterior spinal cord syndrome. Paraplegia 19 201-205
55. Fowler CJ (1992) Clinical significance of electrophysiological studies of patients with lower urinary tract dysfunction. Neurourol Urodyn 11:279-282
56. Frankel HL, Hancock DO, Hyslop G, Melzak J, Michaelis LS, Ungar GH, Vernon JDS, Walsh JJ (1969) The value of postural reduction in the initial management of dosed injuries of the spine with paraplegia and tetraplegia. Paraplegia 73:179-192
57. Fraser JL, Olney RK (1992) The relativ diagnostic sensitivity of different F-wave parameters in various polyneuropathies. Muscle Nerve 15:912-918
58. Fujiki M, Isono M, Hon S, Ueno S (1996) Corticospinal direct response to transcranial magnetic stimulation in humans. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 101:43-57
59. Furby A, Bourriez JL, Jacquesson JM, Mounier-Vehier F, Guieu JD (1992) Motor-evoked potentials to magnetic technical considerations and nominative data from 50 subjects. J Neurol 239:152-156
60. Gerner HJ (1992) Die Querschnittlähmung. Erstversorgung, Behandlungsstrategie, Rehabilitation. Blockwell Wissenschaft, Berlin
61. Gibbon NOK (1976) Nomenclature of neurogenic bladder. Urology 8:423
62. Goddndge A, Eisen A, Hoirch M (1987) Paraspinal stimulation of elict somatosensory evoked potentials: an approach to physiological localization of spinal lesions. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 68:268-276
63. Gruninger W, Ricker K (1981) Somatosensory cerebral evoked potentials in spinal cord disease. Paraplegia 19:206-215
64. Grundy BL, Friedman W (1987) Electrophysiological evaluation of the patient with acute spinal cord injury. Crit Care Clin 3:519-548
65. Guttmann L (1970) Spinal shock and reflex behaviour in man. Paraplegia 8:100-110
66. Haldemann S, Bradley E, Bhatia NN, Johnsons BK (1982) Pudendal evoked responses. Arch Neurol 39:280-283
67. Haldemann S (1984) Dissociation between posterior tibial and pudendal somatosensory evoked responses: possible different central pathways. Neurology 34 [Suppl 1]:143
68. Haldemann S (1986) Pudendal nerve evoked spinal, cortical and bulbocavemosus-reflex responses: methods and application. In: Grundy BL, Villani RM (eds) Evoked potentials. Liss, New York, pp 68-75
69. Hall M (1843) New memoir on the nervous system. Bailliere, London
70. Hardy AG, Rossier AB (1975) Cervical spinal cord injuries. In. Hardy AG, Rossier AB (eds) Spinal cord injuries.Thieme, Stuttgart
71. Harris P (1968) Associated injuries in traumatic paraplegia and tetraplegia. Paraplegia 5:215-220
72. Hess CW, Mills KR, Murray NM (1986) Measurement of central motor conduction in multiple sclerosis by magnetic brain stimulation. Lancet II:355-358
73. Hirayama T,Tsubokawa R, Maejima S, Yamamoto T, Kataryama Y (1991) Clinical assessment of the prognosis and severity of spinal cord injury using corticospinal motor evoked potentials. In:Shimoji K, Kurokawa T, Tamaki T, Willis WD (eds) Spinal cord monitoring and electrodiagnosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 503-510
74. Houlden DA, Schwartz ML, Klettke KA (1992) Neurophysiologic diagnosis in incooperative trauma patients: confounding factors. J Traum 33:244-251
75. Iizuka T, Azuma H, Tanaka H, Sugioka H, Kondo T (1991) Magnetic transcutaneous stimulation of the motor pathway in spinal cord disorders. In: Shimoji K, Kurokawa T, Tamaki T, Willis WD (eds) Spinal cord monitoring and electrodiagnosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 253-261
76. Ivan LP (1973) Spinal reflexes in cerebral death. Neurology 23:650-652
77. Jacobs SR, Sarlo FB, Baran EM, Herbison GJ, Ditunno JF (1992) Extensor carpi radialis recovery predicted by qualitative SEP and clinical examination in quadriplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 73:790-793
78. Jorg J, Hielscher H (1993) SEP in der neurologischen Diagnostik. In: Jorg J, Hielscher H (Hrsg) Evozierte Potentiale in Klinik und Praxis Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 144-182
79. Jones SJ (1979) Investigation of brachial plexus traction lesions by peripheral and spinal somatosensory evoked potentials. J Neuro Neurosurg Psychiatry 42:107-116
80. Jorgensen EO (1973) Spinal man after brain-death. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 28:259-273
81. Katz RT, Van den Berg C,Weinberger D, Cadwell J (1990) Magnetoelectric stimulation of human motor cortex: normal values and potential safety issues in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 71:597-600
82. Katz RT, Joleikis RJ, Knuth AE (1991) Somatosensory-evoked and dermatomal-evoked potentials are not clinically useful in the prognostication of acute spinat cord injury. Spine 16:730-735
83. Kiers L, Clouston P, Ziniga G, Cros D (1994) Quantitative studies of F-responses in Guillain-Barré syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 93:255-264
84. Kiwerski J, Weiss M (1981) Neurological improvement in traumatic injuries of cervical spinal cord. Paraplegia 19:31-37
85. Kovindha A, Mahachai R (1992) Short latency somatosensory potentials (SSEPs) of the tibial nerves in spinal cord injuries. Paraplegia 30:502-506
86. Koyanagi T, Arikado K, Takamatsu T, Jsuji I (1982) Experience with electromyography on the external urethral sphincter in spinal cord injury patients. J Urol 127 272-276
87. Krajnik SR, Bridle MJ (1992) Hand splinting in quadriplegia: current practice. Am J Occup Ther 46:149-156
88. Krane RJ, Siroky MB (1980) Studies on sacral evoked potentials. J Urol 124:872-876
89. Krasilowsky G (1980) Nerve conduction studies in patients with cervical spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 61 204-208
90. Kunesch E, Reiners K, Muller-Mattheis V, Strohmeyer T, Ackermann R, Freund HJ (1992) Neurological risk profile in organic erectile impotence. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:275-281
91. Lanthem PA, Gregorio TL, Garber SL (1985) Highlevel quadriplegia:an occupational therapy challenge. Am J Occup Ther 39:705-714
92. Laurence TL, Pugel AV,Teasdall RD (1978) Peripheral nerve involvement in spinal cord injury: an electromyographic study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 59:309-313
93. Lewko JP, Tarkka IM, Dimitrijevic MR (1995) Neurophysiological assessment of the motor and sensory spinal pathways in chronic spinal cord injury. Restor Neurol Neurosci 7:225-234
94. Li C, Houlden DA, Rowed DW (1990) Somatosensory evoked potentials and neurological grades as predictors of outcome in acute spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg 72:600-609
95. Little JW, Halar EM (1985) H-reflex changes following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 66:19-22
96. Lucas MG, Thomas DG (1989) Lack of relationship on conus reflexes to bladder function after spinal injury. Br J Urol 63:24-27
97. Macdonell RAL, Donnan GA (1995) Magnetic cortical stimulation in acute spinal cord injury. Neurology 45:303-306
98. Maertens-de-Noordhout A, Remade JM, Pepin JL, Born JD, Deiwaide PJ (1991) Magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in cervical spondylosis. Neurology 41 75-80
99. Marciello MA, Flanders AE, Herbison FJ, Schaefer DM, Friedman DP, Lane JL (1992) Magnetic resonance imaging related to neurologic outcome in cervical spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74 940-946
100. Maynard FM, Reynold GG, Fountain S, Wilmot C, Hamilton R (19779) Neurological prognosis after traumatic quadriplegia. J Neurosurg 50 611-616
101. Meinecke FW (1968) Frequency and distribution of associated injuries in traumatic paraplegia and tetraplegia. Paraplegia 5:196-209
102. Merton PA, Morton HB (1980) Stimulation of the cerebral cortex in the intact human subject. Nature 185:227-228
103. Meyer BU, Britton TC, Benecke R, Bischoff C, Machetanz J, Conrad B (1992) Motor responses evoked by magnetic brain stimulation in psychogenic limb weakness: diagnostic value and limitations. J Neurol 239:251-255
104. Nagata S, Transfeldt E, Roche B, Torres F, Heithoff K (1991) Comparison between magnetic resonance imaging and somatosensory evoked potentials in chronic spinal cord injury patients. In: Shimoji K, Kurokawa T, Tamaki T, Willis WD (eds) Spinal cord monitoring and electrodiagnosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 526-535
105. Nanninga JB, Meyer P (1980) Urethral sphincter activity following acute spinal cord injury. J Urol 123 528-530
106. Netz J, Homberg V (1992) Intact conduction of fastest corticospinal efferents is not sufficient for normal voluntary muscle strength: transcranial motor cortex stimulation in patients with tetraplegia. Neurosci Lett 146:29-32
107. Nishijima Y, Okada M, Izumi T, Toda N, Yamazata Y (1991) Motor evoked potentials following transcranial magnetic stimulation in cervical myelopathy. In:Shimoji K, Kurokawa T, Tamaki T, W illis WD (eds) Spinal cord monitoring and electrodiagnosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 245-252
108. Nogueira MC, Herbaut AG, Wespes E (1990) Neurophysiological investigations of two hundred men with erectile dysfunction. Eur Urol 18:37-41
109. Nuwer MR, Aminoff M, Desmedt J, Eisen AA, Goodin D, Matsuoka S et al. (1994) IFCN recommended standards for short latency somatosensory evoked potentials. Report of an IFCN commitee. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 91:6-11
110. Nyboer VJ, Johnson HE (1971) Electromyographic findings in lower extremities of patients with traumatic quadriplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 6:256-259
111. O'Hare JM, Abbort GH (1967) Electromyographic evidence of lower motor neuron injury in cervical spinal cord injury. Proc Ann Clin Spinal Cord Inj Conf 16:25-27
112. Opsomer RJ, Guerit JM, Wese FX, Van Cangh PJ (1986) Pudendal cortical somatosensory evoked potentials. J Urol 135:1216-1218
113. Parry GJ (1992) Elertrodiagnostic studies in the evaluation of peripheral nerve and brachial plexus injuries. Neurol Trauma 4:921-934
114. Pedersen E, Harring H, Klemar B,Torring J (1978) Human anal reflexes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 41:813
115. Petersen J, Frankson C (1955) Electromyographic study of the striated muscles of the male urethra. Br J Urol 27:148
116. Pickard RS, Powell PH, Schofield IS (1994) The clinical application of dorsal penile nerve cerebral-evoked response recording in the investigation of impotence. Br J Urol 74 231-235
117. Picozzi P, Perrone P, Tonnarelli GP, Griner AC, Pozzi GC, Rocca A (1989) A potenzali evocati somatosensoriali nella valutazione e follow-up del traumatizzato vertebro middollare cervicale. Minerva Anestesiol 53:119-122
118. Restuccia O, DiLazzaro V, Valeriani M, Tonali P, Maugiere F (1991) Segmental dysfunction of the cervical cord revealed by abnormalities of the spinal N 13 potential in cervical spondylotic myelopatny. Neurology 42 1054-1063
119. Restuccia D, Valeriani M, DiLazzaro V, Tonali P, Mauguiere F (1994) Somatosensory evoked potentials after multisegmental upper limb stimulation in diagnosis of cervical spondylotic myelopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 57:301-308
120. Riddoch G (1917) The reflex functions of the completey divided spinal cord in man, compared with those associated with less severe lesions. Brain 40 264-402
121. Rossier AB, Ott R (1976) Bladder and urethral recordings in acute and chronic spinal cord injury patients. Urol Int 31 49-59
122. Rossier AB, Farn BA, Dibenedetto M, Sarkaratti M (1979) Urodynamics in spinal shock. Urol Res 122:783-787
123. Rossier AB, Farn BA, Dibenedetto M, Sarkaratti M (1980) Urethra-versical function during spinal shock. Urol Res 8:53-65
124. Rossini PM, Barker AT, Berardelli A, Caramina MD, Caruso G, Cracco RQ, Dimitrijevic MR, Hallet M, Katayama Y, Lucking CH, Maertens de Noordhout AL, Mardsen CD, Murray NMF, Rothwell JC, Swash M, Tomberg C (1994) Non-invasive electrical and magnetic Stimulation of the brain, spinal cord and roots: basic principles and procedures for routine clinical application. Report of an IFCN committee. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 91:79-92
125. Roth EJ, Lawler MH, Yarkony GM (1990) Traumatic central cord syndrome: clinical features and functional outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 71:18-23
126. Rowed DW (1982) Value of somatosensory evoked potentials for prognosis in partial cord injuries. In:Tator CH (ed) Early managment of acute spinal injury. Raven, New York
127. Schaefer DM, Flanders A, Northrup BE, Doan HT, Osterholm JL (1989) Magnetic resonance imaging of acute cervical spinal trauma; correlation with severity of neurologic injury. Spine 14:1090-1095
128. Schneider RC, Cherry C, Pantek H (1954) The syndrome of acute central cervical spine cord injury. J Neurosurg 11:546-577
129. Schneider H, Matakas F (1971) Pathological changes of the spinal cord after brain death. Acta Neuropathol 18:234-247
130. Schrader SC, Sloan TB, Toleikis JR (1987) Detection of sacral sparing in acute spinal cord injury. Spine 12:533-535
131. Schurch B, Hauri D, Rodic B, Curt A, Meyer M, Rossier A (1996) Botulinum-A toxin as a treatment of detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia: a prospective study in 24 spinal cord injury patients. J Urol 155:1023-1029
132. Sedgwick TB, El-Nagamy E, Frankel H (1980) Spinal cord potential in traumatic paraplegia and quadriplegia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 43:823-830
133. Siroky MB, Sax DS, Krane RJ (1979) Sacral signal tracing the electrophysiology of the bulbocavernosus-reflex. J Urol 122:661-664
134. Stark RJ, Kennard C, Swash M (1980) Hand wasting in spondylotic high cord compression: an electromyographic study. Ann Neurol 9:58-62
135. Stauffer ES (1984) Neurologic recovery following injuries to the cervical spinal cord and nerve roots. Spine 9:532-534
136. Stefaniwsky L, Bilowit DS, Prasad SS (1980) Reduced motor condition velocity of the ulnar nerve in spinal cord injured patients. Paraplegia 18:21-24
137. Stohr M (1989) Somatosensible Reizantworten von Rückenmark und Gehirn (SEP). In: Stohr M, Dichgans J, Diener HC, Buettner UW (Hrsg) Evozierte Potentiale. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, S 23-251
138. Tackmann W, Porst H (1987) Diagnostik neurogener Poterizstörungen mit Hilfe des Bulbacavernosus-Reflexes und somatosensorisch evozierter Potentiale nach Stimulation des N.pudendus. Nervenarzt 58 292-299
139. Taniguchi MH, Hayes J, Rodriguez AA (1979) Reliability determination of F mean response latency. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74:1139-1143
140. Taylor S, Ashby P, Verrie M (1984) Neurophysiological changes following traumatic spinal lesions in man. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 47:1102-1108
141. Tavy DLJ, Wagner GL, Keunen RWM, Wattendorf AR, Hekster REM, Franssen H (1994) Transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy: clinical and radiological correlation. Muscle Nerve 17:235-241
142. Toleikis JR, Sloan TB (1988) Comparison of dermatomal and major nerve evoked responses with clinical diagnosis in acute spinal injury. In:Ducker DB, Brown RH (eds) Neurophysiology and standards of spinal cord monitoring. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 295-301
143. Waters RL, Adkins RH, Yakura JS (1991) Definition of complete spinal cord injury. Paraplegia 29:573-581
144. Waters RL, Rodney A, Adkins RH, Yakura JS, Sie J (1992) Recovery following complete paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 73:784-789
145. Waters RL, Rodney A, Adkins RH, Yakura JS, Sie J (1993) Motor and sensory following complete tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74:242-247
146. Waters RL, Rodney A, Yakura JS, Vigil D (1994) Prediction of ambulatory performance based on motor scores derived from standards of the American Spinal Injury Association. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 75:750-760
147. Waters RL, Rodney A, Adkins RH, Yakura JS, Sie J (1994) Motor and sensory recovery following incomplete tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 75:306-311
148. Welch RD, Lobley SJ, O'Sullivan SE, Freed MM (1986) Functional independence in quadriplegia: critical levels. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 67:235-240
149. Wu L, Manno RJ, Herbison GJ, Ditunno JF (1992) Recovery of zero-grade muscles in the zone of partial preservation in motor complete quadriplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 73:40-43
150. Yarkony GM, Elliott JR, Lowell L, Heinemann AW, Katz RT, Yeongchi W (1988) Rehabilitation outcomes in complete CS quadriplegia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 76:73-76
151. Yiannikas C, Shahani BT, Young RR (1986) Short latency somatosensory-evoked potentials from radial, median, ulnar, and peroneal nerve stimulation in the assessment of cervical spondylosis. Arch Neurol 43:1264-1271
152. York DH, Watts C, Raffensberger M, Spagnola T, Joyce C (1983) Utilization of somatosensory evoked cortical potentials in spinal cord injury. Spine 8:832-839
153. Young W, Mollin D (1988) Somatosensory evoked potentials in chronic spinal injury: an update. In: Ducker DB, Brown RH (eds) Neurophysiology and standards of spinal cord monitoring. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 277-288
154. Zanetta G, Righetti C, Manganotti P, Polo A, Tinazzi M, Fiaschi A, Tosi L (1995) Neurophysiological and urodynamic examinations in the functional assessment of spinal cord below the injury site. Eur Neurol 35:93-98