Rus in Urbe: The spatial evolution of urban parks in the United States, 1850-1920

Historical Geography

Volumn 25, Issue 1-2, 1997, Pages 124-147

  Tuason, Julie A ^a  

^a TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GREENSPACE PROVISION; HISTORICAL STUDY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; PARKLAND DIFFUSION; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN PARK;

USA;

EID: 0030816909     PISSN: 10916458     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
2. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
3. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
4. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
5. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
6. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
7. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
8. See for example: Daniel Bluestone, "From Promenade to Park: The Gregarious Origins of Brooklyn's Park Movement," American Quarterly 38 (1987): 529-550; Idem, Constructing Chicago (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Albert Fein, Landscape into Cityscape: F. L. Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1968); Bruce Kucklick, To Everything There is a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 1909-1976 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); Janet Northam Russell and Jack W. Berryman, "Parks, Boulevards, and Outdoor Recreation: The Promotion of Seattle as an Ideal Residential City and Summer Resort, 1890-1910," Journal of the West 26 (1987): 5-17; Terence George Young, "Nature and Moral Order: The Cultural Significance of San Francisco's Parks, 1865-1925" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1991); and Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard University Press, 1982).
9. The best work to date on the history of urban parks is Galen Cranz, The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982). Other noteworthy works include: Mary Virginia Frye, "The Historical Development of Municipal Parks in the United States: Concepts and their Application" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1964); and Lebert H. Weir, ed., Parks: A Manual of Municipal and County Parks, 2 vols. (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co, 1928).
10. The best work to date on the history of urban parks is Galen Cranz, The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982). Other noteworthy works include: Mary Virginia Frye, "The Historical Development of Municipal Parks in the United States: Concepts and their Application" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1964); and Lebert H. Weir, ed., Parks: A Manual of Municipal and County Parks, 2 vols. (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co, 1928).
11. The best work to date on the history of urban parks is Galen Cranz, The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982). Other noteworthy works include: Mary Virginia Frye, "The Historical Development of Municipal Parks in the United States: Concepts and their Application" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1964); and Lebert H. Weir, ed., Parks: A Manual of Municipal and County Parks, 2 vols. (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co, 1928).
12. Only one historical-geographical study has addressed the changing spatial distribution of urban parks within American cities, but it is unpublished and has not received the attention that it deserves: Kathleen Londa, "Urban Parks: Their Historical Development and Geographic Distribution in American Cities" (M.A. thesis, Syracuse University, 1979).
13. Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 46. Richard Knapp and Charles Hartsoe also make this kind of reference, without elaboration, in their statement that "[i]mitating New York's 840-acre Central Park, major American cities created large parks" in the late nineteenth century (Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America: The National Recreation Association, 1906-1965 [Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association, 1979], 14). Similarly, Mary Frye notes that Central Park is "widely heralded as ushering in the park movement in the United States," once again without specific treatment of the actual diffusion of the movement (Frye, "Historical Development of Municipal Parks," 1). Even Cranz's and Weir's otherwise comprehensive treatments of American urban parks fail to document the spatial diffusion of the park movement from its beginnings with Central Park (Cranz, The Politics of Park Design; Weir, Parks).
14. Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 46. Richard Knapp and Charles Hartsoe also make this kind of reference, without elaboration, in their statement that "[i]mitating New York's 840-acre Central Park, major American cities created large parks" in the late nineteenth century (Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America: The National Recreation Association, 1906-1965 [Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association, 1979], 14). Similarly, Mary Frye notes that Central Park is "widely heralded as ushering in the park movement in the United States," once again without specific treatment of the actual diffusion of the movement (Frye, "Historical Development of Municipal Parks," 1). Even Cranz's and Weir's otherwise comprehensive treatments of American urban parks fail to document the spatial diffusion of the park movement from its beginnings with Central Park (Cranz, The Politics of Park Design; Weir, Parks).
15. Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 46. Richard Knapp and Charles Hartsoe also make this kind of reference, without elaboration, in their statement that "[i]mitating New York's 840-acre Central Park, major American cities created large parks" in the late nineteenth century (Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America: The National Recreation Association, 1906-1965 [Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association, 1979], 14). Similarly, Mary Frye notes that Central Park is "widely heralded as ushering in the park movement in the United States," once again without specific treatment of the actual diffusion of the movement (Frye, "Historical Development of Municipal Parks," 1). Even Cranz's and Weir's otherwise comprehensive treatments of American urban parks fail to document the spatial diffusion of the park movement from its beginnings with Central Park (Cranz, The Politics of Park Design; Weir, Parks).
16. Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 46. Richard Knapp and Charles Hartsoe also make this kind of reference, without elaboration, in their statement that "[i]mitating New York's 840-acre Central Park, major American cities created large parks" in the late nineteenth century (Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America: The National Recreation Association, 1906-1965 [Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association, 1979], 14). Similarly, Mary Frye notes that Central Park is "widely heralded as ushering in the park movement in the United States," once again without specific treatment of the actual diffusion of the movement (Frye, "Historical Development of Municipal Parks," 1). Even Cranz's and Weir's otherwise comprehensive treatments of American urban parks fail to document the spatial diffusion of the park movement from its beginnings with Central Park (Cranz, The Politics of Park Design; Weir, Parks).
17. Steven A. Riess, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 46. Richard Knapp and Charles Hartsoe also make this kind of reference, without elaboration, in their statement that "[i]mitating New York's 840-acre Central Park, major American cities created large parks" in the late nineteenth century (Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America: The National Recreation Association, 1906-1965 [Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association, 1979], 14). Similarly, Mary Frye notes that Central Park is "widely heralded as ushering in the park movement in the United States," once again without specific treatment of the actual diffusion of the movement (Frye, "Historical Development of Municipal Parks," 1). Even Cranz's and Weir's otherwise comprehensive treatments of American urban parks fail to document the spatial diffusion of the park movement from its beginnings with Central Park (Cranz, The Politics of Park Design; Weir, Parks).
18. Large urban parks of the Victorian Era are sometimes referred to as "romantic parks" or "pleasure grounds." For the purposes of this study, I have elected to call them "large landscape parks" to distinguish them from the small playground parks that emerged in the 1890s.
19. Terence Young stresses the four moral concerns that were central to the park movement in the latter half of the nineteenth century. These "four virtues" were: public health, prosperity, social coherence, and democratic equality (Young, "Nature and Moral Order," 2).
20. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
21. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
22. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
23. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
24. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
25. Sources on the origins of the American urban park movement include: M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Spiro Kostof, America by Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
26. John H. Rauch, Public Parks: Their Effects Upon the Moral, Physical, and Sanitary Conditions of the Inhabitants of Large Cities (Chicago: S. C. Griggs and Co., 1869), 6.
27. Geoffrey Blodgett, "Frederick Law Olmsted: Landscape Architecture as Conservative Reform," Journal of American History 62 (1976): 878.
28. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
29. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
30. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
31. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
32. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
33. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
34. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
35. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
36. Frederick Law Olmsted, quoted in Weir, Parks, xix; emphasis added. Olmsted's life, his work, and his philosophy of park design are documented in a number of sources, including: Charles Beveridge, "Frederick Law Oimsted's Theory of Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3 (1977): 38-43; Julius G. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); and Albert Fein, Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition (New York: George Braziller, 1972). The most comprehensive and detailed biographical work is: Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 3 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928). There are also several books and articles covering Olmsted's work in specific American cities, including Daniel Jacobson, "The Pastoral in the City: Frederick Law Olmsted and the Development of Central Park," East Lakes Geographer 20 (1985): 70-77; Eric A. Lindstrom, "The Olmsted Legacy of Nineteenth-Century Parks in Buffalo, New York" (M.A. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1983); Edward K. Mueller and John F. Bauman, "The Olmsteds in Pittsburgh: Part I, Landscaping the Private City," Pittsburgh History 73 (1993): 122-140; and Victoria Post Ranney, Olmsted in Chicago (Chicago: Open Lands Project, 1972).
37. Central Park quickly became a major attraction for both residents and visitors to New York City. In 1871, park attendance averaged 30,000 people per day and ranged from 1,000 on a bad-weather day to 109,000 on "a fine Sunday in September." Charles E. Doell and Gerald B. Fitzgerald, A Brief History of Parks and Recreation in the United States Chicago: The Athletic Institute, 1954, 29; see also Olmsted and Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture.
38. Central Park quickly became a major attraction for both residents and visitors to New York City. In 1871, park attendance averaged 30,000 people per day and ranged from 1,000 on a bad-weather day to 109,000 on "a fine Sunday in September." Charles E. Doell and Gerald B. Fitzgerald, A Brief History of Parks and Recreation in the United States Chicago: The Athletic Institute, 1954, 29; see also Olmsted and Kimball, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture.
39. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
40. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
41. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
42. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
43. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
44. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
45. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
46. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
47. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A.
48. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
49. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
50. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
51. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
52. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
53. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
54. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
55. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
56. These sources (a total of forty-five) are far too numerous to cite here. One source proved particularly valuable for the founding dates of some of these parks: Julius G. Fabos, et. al., Frederick Law Olmsted. Five other sources provided founding dates of several of the more well-known parks: Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Peter J. Schmitt, Back to Nature; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape; Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). The vast majority of the founding dates, however, were laboriously gleaned from histories of individual U.S. cities, including (but not limited to): Sam Acheson, Dallas Yesterday (Dallas: SMU Press, 1977); A. Theodore Brown and Lyle W. Dorsett, K.C.: A History of Kansas City, Missouri (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1978); Lyle W. Dorsett, The Queen City: A History of Denver (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1977); George J. Lankevich, Atlanta: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1813-1976 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1978); E. Kimbark MacColl, The Shaping of a City: Business and Politics in Portland, Oregon, 1885-1915 (Portland, OR: The Georgian Press Co., 1976); William D. Miller, Memphis during the Progressive Era, 1900-1917 (Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press, 1957); Ohio Writers' Program of the Works Projects Administration, Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and Its Neighbors (Cincinnati: Wiesen-Hart Press, 1943); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co., 1990); Bayrd Still, Milwaukee: History of a City (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1948); Marie Tyler-McGraw, At the Falls: Richmond, Virginia and Its People (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Unfortunately, I was not able to locate any founding dates for large landscape parks in the following cities: Akron, OH; Birmingham, AL; Bridgeport, CT; Columbus, OH; Dayton, OH; Des Moines, IA; Grand Rapids, MI; Jersey City, NJ; Lowell, MA; New Haven, CT; Norfolk, VA; Paterson, NJ; Providence, RI; Salt Lake City, UT; Syracuse, NY; Toledo, OH; and Yonkers, NY. For complete documentation of all sources used, see: Julie A. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes: Women, Men, and the Spatial Transformation of Urban Parks in the United States, 1850-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), 91.
57. In a few cases, a city may have acquired land for a large park but did not "improve," or landscape, the park until many years later. Two noteworthy examples were New Orleans (City Park, acquired in 1854 but not improved until the 1890s) and Oakland (Lakeside Park, designated in 1870 but not fully landscaped or developed until 1908).
58. Riess, City Games.
59. It is, perhaps, not a mere coincidence that the nationwide movement to create state parks, national parks, and other types of wilderness preserves began to accelerate in the 1920s. See Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982). Nash himself, however, does not make any explicit connection between the decline of large landscape parks and the rise of the wilderness preservation movement.
60. Horace William Shaler Cleveland, The Public Grounds of Chicago: How to Give Them Character and Expression (Chicago: Charles D. Lakey, 1869), 4.
61. For the role of land speculation in the Central Park case, see Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
62. Glen E. Holt, "Private Plans for Public Spaces: The Origins of Chicago's Park System, 1850-1875," Chicago History 8 (1979): 173-184. See also Michael Patrick McCarthy, "Businessmen and professionals in municipal reform: the Chicago experience, 1887-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1970).
63. Glen E. Holt, "Private Plans for Public Spaces: The Origins of Chicago's Park System, 1850-1875," Chicago History 8 (1979): 173-184. See also Michael Patrick McCarthy, "Businessmen and professionals in municipal reform: the Chicago experience, 1887-1920" (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1970).
64. Weir, Parks, 11.
65. Don H. Doyle, Nashville in the New South, 1880-1930 (Knoxville: University of Tennes-see Press, 1985). See also: Charles Cheape, Moving the Masses: Urban Public Transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880-1912 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); and Millicent Hall, "The Park at the End of the Trolley," Landscape 22 (1977): 11-18.
66. Don H. Doyle, Nashville in the New South, 1880-1930 (Knoxville: University of Tennes-see Press, 1985). See also: Charles Cheape, Moving the Masses: Urban Public Transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880-1912 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); and Millicent Hall, "The Park at the End of the Trolley," Landscape 22 (1977): 11-18.
67. Don H. Doyle, Nashville in the New South, 1880-1930 (Knoxville: University of Tennes-see Press, 1985). See also: Charles Cheape, Moving the Masses: Urban Public Transit in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1880-1912 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980); and Millicent Hall, "The Park at the End of the Trolley," Landscape 22 (1977): 11-18.
68. Frederick L. Olmsted, Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1870); also published in Journal of Social Science (1871). The cities for which the Olmsted firm worked included: Albany, NY; Boston, MA; Buffalo, NY; Chicago, IL; Detroit, MI; Hartford, CT; Kansas City, MO; Louisville, KY; Milwaukee, WI; New York, NY; Newark, NJ; Philadelphia, PA; Rochester, NY; San Francisco, CA; and Washington, DC. (Fabos et al., Frederick Law Olmsted).
69. Frederick L. Olmsted, Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1870); also published in Journal of Social Science (1871). The cities for which the Olmsted firm worked included: Albany, NY; Boston, MA; Buffalo, NY; Chicago, IL; Detroit, MI; Hartford, CT; Kansas City, MO; Louisville, KY; Milwaukee, WI; New York, NY; Newark, NJ; Philadelphia, PA; Rochester, NY; San Francisco, CA; and Washington, DC. (Fabos et al., Frederick Law Olmsted).
70. Frederick L. Olmsted, Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1870); also published in Journal of Social Science (1871). The cities for which the Olmsted firm worked included: Albany, NY; Boston, MA; Buffalo, NY; Chicago, IL; Detroit, MI; Hartford, CT; Kansas City, MO; Louisville, KY; Milwaukee, WI; New York, NY; Newark, NJ; Philadelphia, PA; Rochester, NY; San Francisco, CA; and Washington, DC. (Fabos et al., Frederick Law Olmsted).
71. Horace W. S. Cleveland, Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the West (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg and Co., 1873). See also: Cleveland, The Public Grounds of Chicago; Idem, Suggestions for a System of Parks and Parkways for the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis: Johnson, Smith and Harrison, 1883); and Idem, Park Systems of St. Paul and Minneapolis (St. Paul, MN: H. M. Smyth, 1887).
72. Horace W. S. Cleveland, Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the West (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg and Co., 1873). See also: Cleveland, The Public Grounds of Chicago; Idem, Suggestions for a System of Parks and Parkways for the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis: Johnson, Smith and Harrison, 1883); and Idem, Park Systems of St. Paul and Minneapolis (St. Paul, MN: H. M. Smyth, 1887).
73. Horace W. S. Cleveland, Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the West (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg and Co., 1873). See also: Cleveland, The Public Grounds of Chicago; Idem, Suggestions for a System of Parks and Parkways for the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis: Johnson, Smith and Harrison, 1883); and Idem, Park Systems of St. Paul and Minneapolis (St. Paul, MN: H. M. Smyth, 1887).
74. In her Politics of Park Design, Cranz discusses the salient features of the "reform-park era," but, as with her treatment of the preceding "pleasure-ground era," she neglects to examine the spatial aspects (including the diffusion) of small playground parks.
75. Cranz, Politics of Park Design; Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks. See also: Stephen Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community, 1865-1915 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1982).
76. Cranz, Politics of Park Design; Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks. See also: Stephen Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community, 1865-1915 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1982).
77. Cranz, Politics of Park Design; Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks. See also: Stephen Hardy, How Boston Played: Sport, Recreation, and Community, 1865-1915 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1982).
78. Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
79. Charles E. Doell, "Parks," in Encyclopedia Americana 21 (New York: Americana Corporation, 1963), 333, emphasis added.
80. Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks, 71. See also Cranz, Politics of Park Design.
81. Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks, 71. See also Cranz, Politics of Park Design.
82. Charles Zueblin, "Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 146, emphasis added.
83. Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 81.
84. See: Sadie American, "The Movement for Small Playgrounds," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 159-170; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 1870-1907 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989); Walter Netsch, "Introduction," in A Breath of Fresh Air, Chicago Public Library (Chicago: Chicago Public Library and Chicago Park District, 1989), 6-8.
85. See: Sadie American, "The Movement for Small Playgrounds," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 159-170; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 1870-1907 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989); Walter Netsch, "Introduction," in A Breath of Fresh Air, Chicago Public Library (Chicago: Chicago Public Library and Chicago Park District, 1989), 6-8.
86. See: Sadie American, "The Movement for Small Playgrounds," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 159-170; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 1870-1907 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989); Walter Netsch, "Introduction," in A Breath of Fresh Air, Chicago Public Library (Chicago: Chicago Public Library and Chicago Park District, 1989), 6-8.
87. See: Sadie American, "The Movement for Small Playgrounds," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 159-170; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 1870-1907 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989); Walter Netsch, "Introduction," in A Breath of Fresh Air, Chicago Public Library (Chicago: Chicago Public Library and Chicago Park District, 1989), 6-8.
88. See: Sadie American, "The Movement for Small Playgrounds," American Journal of Sociology 4 (1898): 159-170; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Allen F. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890-1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967); S. J. Kleinberg, The Shadow of the Mills: Working-Class Families in Pittsburgh, 1870-1907 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989); Walter Netsch, "Introduction," in A Breath of Fresh Air, Chicago Public Library (Chicago: Chicago Public Library and Chicago Park District, 1989), 6-8.
89. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1890).
90. Even in the histories that specifically discuss small urban parks, the playground parks of the Progressive Era are usually dealt with only in the aggregate. An exception is the body of literature that focuses on the history of the working class in various cities. Such studies have contained the best treatment of the changing nature of city parks, although they are admittedly rare. See for example: Kleinberg, In the Shadow of the Mills; Don Mitchell, "Iconography and Locational Conflict from the Underside: Free Speech, People's Park, and the Politics of Homelessness in Berkeley," Political Geography 11 (1992): 152-169; Roy Rosenzweig, "Middle-Class Parks and Working-Class Play: The Struggle over Recreational Space in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1879-1910," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 31-46; Idem, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
91. Even in the histories that specifically discuss small urban parks, the playground parks of the Progressive Era are usually dealt with only in the aggregate. An exception is the body of literature that focuses on the history of the working class in various cities. Such studies have contained the best treatment of the changing nature of city parks, although they are admittedly rare. See for example: Kleinberg, In the Shadow of the Mills; Don Mitchell, "Iconography and Locational Conflict from the Underside: Free Speech, People's Park, and the Politics of Homelessness in Berkeley," Political Geography 11 (1992): 152-169; Roy Rosenzweig, "Middle-Class Parks and Working-Class Play: The Struggle over Recreational Space in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1879-1910," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 31-46; Idem, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
92. Even in the histories that specifically discuss small urban parks, the playground parks of the Progressive Era are usually dealt with only in the aggregate. An exception is the body of literature that focuses on the history of the working class in various cities. Such studies have contained the best treatment of the changing nature of city parks, although they are admittedly rare. See for example: Kleinberg, In the Shadow of the Mills; Don Mitchell, "Iconography and Locational Conflict from the Underside: Free Speech, People's Park, and the Politics of Homelessness in Berkeley," Political Geography 11 (1992): 152-169; Roy Rosenzweig, "Middle-Class Parks and Working-Class Play: The Struggle over Recreational Space in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1879-1910," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 31-46; Idem, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
93. Even in the histories that specifically discuss small urban parks, the playground parks of the Progressive Era are usually dealt with only in the aggregate. An exception is the body of literature that focuses on the history of the working class in various cities. Such studies have contained the best treatment of the changing nature of city parks, although they are admittedly rare. See for example: Kleinberg, In the Shadow of the Mills; Don Mitchell, "Iconography and Locational Conflict from the Underside: Free Speech, People's Park, and the Politics of Homelessness in Berkeley," Political Geography 11 (1992): 152-169; Roy Rosenzweig, "Middle-Class Parks and Working-Class Play: The Struggle over Recreational Space in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1879-1910," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 31-46; Idem, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
94. Even in the histories that specifically discuss small urban parks, the playground parks of the Progressive Era are usually dealt with only in the aggregate. An exception is the body of literature that focuses on the history of the working class in various cities. Such studies have contained the best treatment of the changing nature of city parks, although they are admittedly rare. See for example: Kleinberg, In the Shadow of the Mills; Don Mitchell, "Iconography and Locational Conflict from the Underside: Free Speech, People's Park, and the Politics of Homelessness in Berkeley," Political Geography 11 (1992): 152-169; Roy Rosenzweig, "Middle-Class Parks and Working-Class Play: The Struggle over Recreational Space in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1879-1910," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 31-46; Idem, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Rosenzweig and Blackmar, The Park and the People.
95. Curtis, quoted in Jerry G. Dickason, "1906: A Pivotal Year for the Playground Profession," Parks and Recreation 20 (1985): 43. The Playground Association of America was renamed the Playground and Recreation Association of America (PRAA) in 1911, and then renamed once again in 1931, to the National Recreation Association (NRA). In 1965, the NRA merged with several other organizations to become what is today the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Robert W. Crawford, "The Playground Movement Celebrates 100 Years," Parks and Recreation 20 (1985): 34.
96. Curtis, quoted in Jerry G. Dickason, "1906: A Pivotal Year for the Playground Profession," Parks and Recreation 20 (1985): 43. The Playground Association of America was renamed the Playground and Recreation Association of America (PRAA) in 1911, and then renamed once again in 1931, to the National Recreation Association (NRA). In 1965, the NRA merged with several other organizations to become what is today the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA). Robert W. Crawford, "The Playground Movement Celebrates 100 Years," Parks and Recreation 20 (1985): 34.
97. Playground Association of America, Proceedings of the Annual Playground Congress, and Yearbook, 3 vols. (New York: Playground Association of America, 1907-09).
98. By 1909, there were still eight cities for which the PAA had no founding-date information. These were: Altoona, PA; Birmingham, AL; Des Moines, IA; New York, NY; Norfolk, VA; Saginaw, MI; Wheeling, WV; and Worcester, MA. I have been able to determine, from other sources, that New York had its first public playground as early as 1889 (Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks: Londa, "Urban Parks").
99. When the PAA was founded in 1906, the organization named President Theodore Roosevelt (who had been elected to his second presidential term by a wide popular margin) as its honorary president. A celebrity of enormous proportions, Roosevelt contributed to the PAA's early success and played an active role in the organization, and he even authored a contribution to the inaugural issue of The Playground. Henry S. Curtis, The Play Movement and its Significance (New York: Macmillan, 1917); Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks.
100. When the PAA was founded in 1906, the organization named President Theodore Roosevelt (who had been elected to his second presidential term by a wide popular margin) as its honorary president. A celebrity of enormous proportions, Roosevelt contributed to the PAA's early success and played an active role in the organization, and he even authored a contribution to the inaugural issue of The Playground. Henry S. Curtis, The Play Movement and its Significance (New York: Macmillan, 1917); Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks.
101. Joseph R. Fulk, The Municipalization of Play and Recreation (Washington, D.C.: National Recreation and Park Association, 1922).
102. We must not underestimate the role of Jane Addams in promoting public playgrounds for children. Through Hull-House, a reform-oriented neighborhood organization that Addams founded in Chicago in 1889, the city's first public playground was established in 1893. In 1906, Addams became an officer of the PAA, and by 1913, her work on behalf of the urban poor had gained so much media attention that she was voted the "second most useful American" (second only to Thomas Edison) by readers of Independent Magazine (Christine Bolt, The Women's Movement in the United States and Britain from the 1970s to the 1920s [Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993]).
103. Jesse F. Steiner, Americans at Play (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933).
104. Ibid.
105. Burton J. Bledstein, The Culture of Professionalism: The Middle Class and the Development af Higher Education in America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1976).
106. Benjamin C. Marsh, An Introduction to City Planning: Democracy's Challenge to the American City (1909; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1974). See also: Davis, Spearheads for Reform; Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America; and Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
107. Benjamin C. Marsh, An Introduction to City Planning: Democracy's Challenge to the American City (1909; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1974). See also: Davis, Spearheads for Reform; Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America; and Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
108. Benjamin C. Marsh, An Introduction to City Planning: Democracy's Challenge to the American City (1909; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1974). See also: Davis, Spearheads for Reform; Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America; and Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
109. Benjamin C. Marsh, An Introduction to City Planning: Democracy's Challenge to the American City (1909; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1974). See also: Davis, Spearheads for Reform; Knapp and Hartsoe, Play for America; and Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).
110. Doell and Fitzgerald, Brief History of Parks, 106.
111. Tuason, "Gendered Landscapes," esp. Chapter 5, "Public Space, Private Sphere: Gender and Urban Parks;" Playground Association of America, Proceedings.
112. Davis, Spearheads for Reform.