Traumatic injuries of the internal carotid artery

Neurosurgery Quarterly

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 237-254

  Gabriel, Eric M ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Carotid artery dissection; Carotid artery occlusion; Carotid cavernous fistula; Internal carotid artery; Pseuodoaneurysm; Vascular trauma

Indexed keywords

ARTERY INJURY; BLUNT TRAUMA; CAROTID ARTERY DISEASE; CAROTID CAVERNOUS FISTULA; HUMAN; INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY ANEURYSM; PENETRATING TRAUMA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

EID: 0030782758     PISSN: 10506438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00013414-199712000-00001     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. Watson WL, Silverstone SM. Ligature of the common carotid artery in cancer of the head and neck. Ann Surg 1939;109:1-27.
2. Fleming D. Case of rupture of the carotid artery and wounds of several of its branches, successfully treated by tying the common trunk of the carotid itself. Med Chir J Rev 1817;3:2-4.
3. Verneuil M. Contusions multiples, délire violent, hémiplégie à droite, signes de compression cérébrale. Bull Acad Med Paris 1872;1:46-56.
4. Thai ER. Injury to the Neck. In: Feliciano DV, Moore EE, Mattox KL, eds. Trauma. 3rd ed. Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange, 1996:329-43.
5. Golueke PJ, Goldstein AS, Sclafani SJA, Mitchell WG, Shaftan GW. Routine versus selective exploration of penetrating neck injuries: a randomized prospective study. J Trauma 1984;24: 1010-14.
6. Ordog GJ, Albin D, Wasserberger J, Schlater TL, Balasubramaniam S. 110 bullet wounds to the neck. J Trauma 1985;25:238-46.
7. Roon AJ, Christensen N. Evaluation and treatment of penetrating cervical injuries. J Trauma 1979;19:391-7.
8. Campbell FC, Robbs JV. Penetrating injuries of the neck: a prospective study of 108 patients. Br J Surg 1980;67:582-6.
9. Ramadan F, Rutledge R, Oller D, Howell P, Baker C, Keagy B. Carotid artery trauma: a review of contemporary trauma center experiences. J Vasc Surg 1995;21:46-56.
10. Li MS, Smith BM, Espinosa J, Brown RA, Richardson P, Ford R. Nonpenetrating trauma to the carotid artery: seven cases and a literature review. J Trauma 1994;36:265-72.
11. Hellner D, Thie A, Lachenmayer L, Janzen RWC, Schmelze R. Blunt trauma lesions of the extracranial internal carotid artery in patients with head injury. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 1993;21: 234-8.
12. Yamada S, Kindt GW, Youmans JR. Carotid artery occlusion due to nonpenetrating injury. J Trauma 1967;7:333-42.
13. Meyer JP, Walsh J, Barrett J, et al. Analysis of 18 recent cases of penetrating injuries to the common and internal carotid arteries. Am J Surg 1988;156:96-9.
14. Mahmoud NA. Traumatic aneurysm of the internal carotid artery and epistaxis. J Laryngol Otol 1979;93:629-56.
15. Birley JL, Trotter W. Traumatic aneurysm of the intracranial portion of the internal carotid artery. Brain 1928;51:184-208.
16. Dratz HM, Woodhall B. Traumatic dissecting aneurysm of the left internal carotid, anterior cerebral, and middle cerebral arteries. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1947;6:286-91.
17. Morgan MK, Besser M, Johnston I, Chaseling R. Intracranial carotid artery injury in closed head trauma. J Neurosurg 1987; 66:192-7.
18. Batson RC, Sottiurai VS. Vascular injuries to the neck. In: Kerstein MD, ed. Management of Vascular Trauma. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1985:34-51.
19. Markey JC Jr, Hines JL, Nance FC. Penetrating neck wounds: a review of 218 cases. Am Surg 1975;41:77-83.
20. Rubio PA, Reul GJ Jr, Beall AC Jr, Jordan GL Jr, DeBakey ME. Acute carotid artery injury: 25 years' experience. J Trauma 1974; 14:967-73.
21. Karlin RM, Marks C. Extracranial carotid artery injury: current surgical management. Am J Surg 1983;146:225-7.
22. Woodhurst WB, Robertson WD, Thompson GB. Carotid injury due to intraoral trauma: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 1980;6:559-63.
23. Pitner SE. Carotid thrombosis due to intraoral trauma. NEJM 1966;274:764-7.
24. Moses BH Jr, Toison MA, Boyd CR. Fifteen-year review of extracranial carotid artery injury. J Med Assoc Ga 1987;76:129-32.
25. Welling RE, Saul TG, Tew JM, Jr, Tomsick TA, Kremchek TE, Bellamy MJ. Management of blunt injury to the internal carotid artery. J Trauma 1987;27:1221-6.
26. Jernigan WR, Gardner WC. Carotid artery injuries due to closed cervical trauma. J Trauma 1971;11:429-35.
27. Aarabi B, McQueen JD. Traumatic internal carotid occlusion at the base of the skull. Surg Neurol 1978;10:233-6.
28. Zilkha A. Traumatic occlusion of the internal carotid artery. Radiology 1970;97:543-8.
29. Gabriel EM, Stevenson JC. Traumatic carotid canal fractures and associated internal carotid artery injuries. Neurosurgery 1995;37: 572. Abstract.
30. Boldrey E, Maass L, Miller E. The role of atlantoid compression in the etiology of internal carotid thrombosis. J Neurosurg 1956; 13:127-39.
31. Hughes JT, Brownell B. Traumatic thrombosis of the internal carotid artery in the neck. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1968; 31:307-14.
32. Sullivan HG, Vines FS, Becker DP. Sequelae of indirect internal carotid injury. Radiology 1973;109:91-8.
33. McCormick TM, Burch BH. Routine angiographic evaluation of neck and extremity injuries. J Trauma 1979;19:384-7.
34. Weigelt JA, Thai ER, Snyder WH III, Fry RE, Meier DE, Kilman WJ. Diagnosis of penetrating cervical esophageal injuries. Am J Surg 1987;154:619-22.
35. Flanigan DP, Baraniewski HM, Schuler J, Meyer JP. Neck Injuries. In: Flanigan DP, ed. Civilian Vascular Trauma. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1992:145-16.
36. Rao PM, Bhatti MFK, Gaudino J, et al. Penetrating injuries of the neck: criteria for exploration. J Trauma 1983;23:47-9.
37. Obeid FN, Haddad GS, Horst HM, Bivins BA. A critical reappraisal of mandatory exploration policy for penetrating wounds of the neck. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1985;160:517-22.
38. Noyes LD, McSwain NE Jr, Markowitz IP. Panendoscopy with arteriography versus mandatory exploration of penetrating wounds of the neck. Ann Surg 1986;204:21-31.
39. Wood J, Fabian TC, Mangiante EC. Penetrating neck injuries: recommendations for selective management. J Trauma 1989;29: 602-5.
40. Sclafani SJA, Cavaliere G, Atweh N, Duncan AO, Scalea T. The role of angiography in penetrating neck trauma. J Trauma 1991; 31:557-63.
41. Beitsch P, Weigelt JA, Flynn E, Easley S. Physical examination and arteriography in patients with penetrating zone II neck wounds. Arch Surg 1994;129:577-81.
42. Menawat SS, Dennis JW, Laneve LM, Frykberg ER. Are arteriograms necessary in penetrating zone II neck injuries? J Vasc Surg 1992;16:397-401.
43. Goldsmith MM III, Postma DS, Jones FD. The surgical exposure of penetrating injuries to the carotid artery at the skull base. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1986;95:278-84.
44. Shaha A, Phillips T, Scalea T, et al. Exposure of the internal carotid artery near the skull base: the posterolateral anatomic approach. J Vasc Surg 1988;8:618-22.
45. Dichtel WJ, Miller RH, Feliciano DV, Woodson GE, Hurt J. Lateral mandibulotomy: a technique of exposure for penetrating injuries of the internal carotid artery at the base of the skull. Laryngoscope 1984;94:1140-4.
46. Gewertz BL, Samson DS, Ditmore QM, Bone GE. Management of penetrating injuries of the internal carotid artery at the base of the skull using extracranial-intracranial bypass. J Trauma 1980; 20:365-9.
47. Thai ER, Snyder WH III, Hays RJ, Perry MO. Management of carotid artery injuries. Surgery 1974;76:955-62.
48. Bradley EL III. Management of penetrating carotid injuries: an alternative approach. J Trauma 1973;13:248-55.
49. Liekweg WG Jr, Greenfield LJ. Management of penetrating carotid arterial injury. Ann Surg 1978;188:587-92.
50. Unger SW, Tucker WS Jr, Mrdeza MA, Wellons HA Jr, Chandler JG. Carotid arterial trauma. Surgery 1980;87:477-87.
51. Brown MF, Graham JM, Feliciano DV, Mattox KL, Beall AC Jr, DeBakey ME. Carotid artery injuries. Am J Surg 1982;144:748-52.
52. Anyanwu CH, Ude AC, Swarup AS. Traumatic left carotid aneurysm with hemiplegia. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1982;27:181-2.
53. Tew JM Jr, Johnson JK, Tomsick TA. Traumatic lesions of the carotid artery. In: Smith RR, ed. Stroke and the Extracranial Vessels. New York: Raven Press, 1984:307-19.
54. Welling RE, Kakkasseril JS, Peschiera J. Pseudoaneurysm of the cervical internal carotid artery secondary to blunt trauma. J Trauma 1985;25:1108-10.
55. Chakera TMH. Radiology of blunt trauma to the extracranial portion of the internal carotid artery. Australas Radiol 1980;24: 118-22.
56. Solheim K. Common carotid artery aneurysm after blunt trauma. J Trauma 1979;19:707-9.
57. Margolis MT, Stein RL, Newton TH. Extracranial aneurysms of the internal carotid artery. Neuroradiology 1972;4:78-89.
58. Pelligrini RV, Manzetti GW, DiMarco RF, Bekoe S, Arena SA, Marrangoni AG. The direct surgical management of lesions of the high internal carotid artery. J Cardiovasc Surg 1984;25:29-35.
59. Winslow N. Extracranial aneurysm of the internal carotid artery: history and analysis of the cases registered up to Aug. 1, 1925. Arch Surg 1926;13:689-729.
60. Beall AC Jr, Crawford ES, Cooley DA, DeBakey ME. Extracranial aneurysms of the carotid artery. Report of seven cases. Post-grad Med 1962;32:93-102.
61. Busuttil RW, Davidson RK, Foley KT, Livesay JT, Barker WF. Selective management of extracranial carotid arterial aneurysms. Am J Surg 1980;140:85-91.
62. Nishioka H. Results of the treatment of intracranial aneurysms by occlusion of the carotid artery in the neck. J Neurosurg 1966;25: 660-82.
63. Fakhry SM, Jaques PF, Proctor HJ. Cervical vessel injury after blunt trauma. J Vasc Surg 1988;8:501-8.
64. Goldwasser MS, Lorson EL, Tucker DF, Dolan KD. Internal carotid artery thrombosis associated with a fracture. J Oral Surg 1978;36:543-5.
65. Atkinson TJ, Anavi Y, Gornish M, Tiqva P. Internal carotid artery thrombosis after blunt maxillofacial trauma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1991;72:408-11.
66. Benito MC, Garcia F, Fernandez-Quero L, et al. Lesion of the internal carotid artery caused by a car safety belt. J Trauma 1990;30:116-7.
67. Baik S, Uku JM, Joo KG. Seat-belt injuries to the left common carotid artery and left internal carotid artery. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1988;9:38-9.
68. Gurdjian ES, Hardy WG, Lindner dw, Thomas LM. Closed cervical cranial trauma associated with involvement of carotid and vertebral arteries. J Neurosurg 1963;20:418-27.
69. Perry MO, Snyder WH, Thai ER. Carotid artery injuries caused by blunt trauma. Ann Surg 1980;192:74-7.
70. Moar JJ. Traumatic rupture of the cervical carotid arteries: an autopsy and histopathological study of 200 cases. Forensic Sci Int 1987;34:227-44.
71. Burrows PE, Tubman DE. Multiple extracranial arterial lesions following closed craniocervical trauma. J Trauma 1981;21: 497-8.
72. Crissey MM, Bernstein EF. Delayed presentation of carotid inimal tear following blunt craniocervical trauma. Surgery 1974;75: 543-9.
73. Batzdorf U, Bentson JR, Machleder HI. Blunt trauma to the high cervical carotid artery. Neurosurgery 1979;5:195-201.
74. French BN, Cobb CA III, Dublin AB. Cranial computed tomography in the diagnosis of symptomatic indirect trauma to the carotid artery. Surg Neurol 1981;15:257-67.
75. Machleder HI, Barker WF. Stroke on the wrong side: use of doppler ophthalmic test in cerebral vascular screening. Arch Surg 1972;105:943-7.
76. Müller HR. The diagnosis of internal carotid artery occlusion by directional Doppler sonography of the ophthalmic artery. Neurology 1972;22:816-23.
77. Machleder HI, Barker WF. Noninvasive methods for evaluation of extracranial cerebrovascular disease: a comparison. Arch Surg 1977;112:944-6.
78. Popowich L. Blunt carotid artery trauma associated with maxillofacial injuries: report of three cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1984;42:462-5.
79. Fleming JFR, Petrie D. Traumatic thrombosis of the internal carotid artery with delayed hemiplegia. Canad J Surg 1968;11:166-72.
80. Houck WS, Jackson JR, Odom GL, Young WG. Occlusion of the internal carotid artery in the neck secondary to closed trauma to the head and neck: a report of two cases. Ann Surg 1964;159: 219-21.
81. Schneider RC, Lemmen LJ. Traumatic internal carotid artery thrombosis secondary to nonpenetrating injuries to the neck. J Neurosurg 1952;9:495-507.
82. Olafson RA, Christoferson LA. The syndrome of carotid occlusion following minor craniocerebral trauma. J Neurosurg 1970; 33:636-9.
83. Murray DS. Post-traumatic thrombosis of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries after non-penetrating injuries of the neck. Br J Surg 1957;44:556-61.
84. Northcroft GB, Morgan AD. A fatal case of traumatic thrombosis of the internal carotid artery. Br J Surg 1944;32:105-7.
85. Miller JDR, Ayers TN. Post-traumatic changes in the internal carotid artery and its branches: an arteriographic study. Radiology 1967;89:95-100.
86. Kaufman HH, Lind TA, Clark DS. Non-penetrating trauma to the carotid artery with secondary thrombosis and embolism: treatment by thrombolysin. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1977;37:219-44.
87. Salmon JH, Blatt ES. Aneurysm of the internal carotid artery due to closed trauma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1968;56:28-32.
88. Verbiest H, Calliauw L. Direct and indirect injuries of the cervical carotid arteries. Folia Psyciat Neurol Neurochir (Neer) 1959;62: 371-82.
89. Krajewski LP, Hertzer NR. Blunt carotid artery trauma. Ann Surg 1980;191:341-6.
90. Kestenberg WL. Review of intimai arterial injuries. Surgery versus conservative management. Am Surg 1990;56:504-6.
91. Towne JB, Neis DD, Smith JW. Thrombosis of the internal carotid artery following blunt cervical trauma. Arch Surg 1972;104: 565-8.
92. Blaisdell WF, Clauss RH, Galbraith JG, Imparato AM, Wylie EJ. Joint study of extracranial arterial occlusion: IV. A review of surgical considerations. JAMA 1969;209:1889-95.
93. Maurer PK, Plassche W, Green RM. Blunt trauma to the carotid artery with transient and early repair. Surg Neurol 1984;21: 110-2.
94. Little JM, May J, Vanderfield GK, Lamond S. Traumatic thrombosis of the internal carotid artery. Lancet 1969;2:926-30.
95. Friedenberg MJ, Lake P, Landau S. Bilateral incomplete traumatic occlusion of internal carotid arteries. AJR 1973;118:546-9.
96. Friedman WA, Day AL, Quisling RG, Sypert GW, Rhoton AL Jr. Cervical carotid dissecting aneurysms. Neurosurgery 1980;7: 207-14.
97. Ueda T, Kikuchi H, Karasawa J, Ihara I, Nagata I, Shishido H. Traumatic stenosis of the internal carotid artery in children. Surg Neurol 1986;26:368-72.
98. Fisher CM, Ojemann RG, Roberson GH. Spontaneous dissection of cervico-cerebral arteries. Can J Neurol Sci 1978;5:9-19.
99. Gee W, Kaupp HA, McDonald KM, Lin FZ, Curry JL. Spontaneous dissection of internal carotid arteries. Arch Surg 1980;115: 944-9.
100. Sila CA, Awad IA. Arterial trauma and dissection. In: Awad IA, ed. Cerebrovascular Occlusive Disease and Brain Ischemia. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1992:187-202.
101. Anson J, Crowell RM. Cervicocranial arterial dissection. Neurosurgery 1991;29:89-96.
102. Hart RG, Easton JD. Dissections of cervical and cerebral arteries. Neurol Clin 1983;1:155-82.
103. DeBaets P, Delanote G, Jackers G, DePuydt P, Wilms G. Atherosclerotic dissection of cervical internal carotid artery - a case report. Angiology 1990;41:161-3.
104. Lomeo RM, Silver RM, Brothers M. Spontaneous dissection of the internal carotid artery in a patient with polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Rheum 1989;32:1625-6.
105. Luken MG III, Ascherl GF Jr, Correll JW, Hilal SK. Spontaneous dissecting aneurysms of the extracranial internal carotid artery. Clin Neurosurg 1979;26:353-75.
106. Young PH, Smith KR Jr, Crafts DC, Barner HB. Traumatic occlusion in fibromuscular dysplasia of the carotid artery. Surg Neurol 1981;16:432-7.
107. Davis JW, Holbrook TL, Hoyt DB, Mackersie RC, Field TO Jr, Shackford SR. Blunt carotid artery dissection: incidence, associated injuries, screening and treatment. J Trauma 1990;30:1514-7.
108. Mokri B. Traumatic and spontaneous extracranial internal carotid artery dissections. J Neurol 1990;237:356-61.
109. Mokri B, Piepgras DG, Houser OW: Traumatic dissections of the extracranial internal carotid artery. J Neurosurg 1988;68:189-97.
110. Cogbill TH, Moore EE, Meissner M, et al. The spectrum of blunt injury to the carotid artery: a multicenter perspective. J Trauma 1994;37:473-9.
111. Waespe W, Niesper J, Imhof H, Valavanis A. Lower cranial nerve palsies due to internal carotid dissection. Stroke 1988;19:1561-4.
112. Lieschke GJ, Davis S, Tress BM, Ebeling P. Spontaneous internal carotid artery dissection presenting as hypoglossal nerve palsy. Stroke 1988;19:1151-5.
113. Davies L. A case of vagal palsy due to dissecting aneurysm of the carotid artery. Med J Aust 1987;147:352-3.
114. Panisset M, Eidelman BH. Multiple cranial neuropathy as a feature of internal carotid artery dissection. Stroke 1990;21:141-7.
115. Graham JM, Miller T, Stinnett DM. Spontaneous dissection of the common carotid artery: case report and review of the literature. J Vasc Surg 1988;7:811-3.
116. Houser OW, Mokri B, Sundt TM Jr, Baker HL Jr, Reese DF. Spontaneous cervical cephalic arterial dissection and its residuum: angiographic spectrum. AJNR 1984;5:27-34.
117. Mokri B, Sundt TM Jr, Houser OW, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery. Ann Neurol 1986;19:126-38.
118. Mehigan JT, Olcott C IV. The carotid "string" sign: differential diagnosis and management. Am J Surg 1980;140:137-43.
119. Mokri B, Houser OW, Sundt TM Jr, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissection of the internal carotid arteries: clinical presentation and angiographic features. Ann Neurol 1982;12:84 (Abstract
120. Bradac GB, Kaernbach A, Bolk-Weischedel D, Finck GA. Spontaneous dissecting aneurysm of cervical cerebral arteries. Neuroradiology 1981;21:149-54.
121. O'Dwyer JA, Moscow N, Trevor R, Ehrenfeld WK, Newton TH. Spontaneous dissection of the carotid artery. Radiology 1980;137: 379-85.
122. Rothrock JF, Lim V, Press G, Gosink B. Serial magnetic resonance and carotid duplex examinations in the management of carotid dissection. Neurology 1989;39:686-92.
123. Hennerici M, Steinke W, Rautenberg W. High-resistance doppler flow pattern in extracranial carotid dissection. Arch Neurol 1989; 46:670-2.
124. Petro GR, Witwer GA, Cacayorin ED, et al. Spontaneous dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery: correlation of arteriography, CT, and pathology. AJR 1987;148:393-8.
125. Sue DE, Brant-Zawadzki MN, Chance J. Dissection of cranial arteries in the neck: correlation of MRI and arteriography. Neuroradiology 1992;34:273-8.
126. Bui LN, Brant-Zawadzki M, Verghese P, Gillan G. Magnetic resonance angiography of cervicocranial dissection. Stroke 1993; 24:126-31.
127. Zelenock GB, Kazmers A, Whitehouse WM Jr, et al. Extracranial internal carotid artery dissections. Arch Surg 1982;117:425-32.
128. Stringer WL, Kelly DL Jr. Traumatic dissection of the extracranial internal carotid artery. Neurosurgery 1980;6:123-30.
129. Watridge CB, Muhlbauer MS, Lowery RD. Traumatic carotid artery dissection: diagnosis and treatment. J Neurosurg 1989;71: 854-7.
130. Bergquist BJ, Boone SC, Whaley RA. Traumatic dissection of the internal carotid artery treated by EC-IC anastamosis. Stroke 1981; 12:73-6.
131. Goldstone J, Moore WS. Emergency carotid artery surgery in neurologically unstable patients. Arch Surg 1976;111:1284-91.
132. Salar G, Mingrino S. Traumatic intracranial internal carotid aneurysm due to gunshot wound. Case report. J Neurosurg 1978; 49:100-2.
133. Hammon WM. Analysis of 2187 consecutive penetrating wounds to the brain from Vietnam. J Neurosurg 1971;34:127-31.
134. Kieck CF, deVillers JC. Vascular lesions due to transcranial stabwounds. J Neurosurg 1984;60:42-6.
135. Capanna AH. Traumatic intracranial aneurysm and Gradenigo's syndrome secondary to gunshot wound. Surg Neurol 1984;22: 263-6.
136. Acosta C, Williams PE Jr, Clark K. Traumatic aneurysms of the cerebral vessels. J Neurosurg 1972;36:531-6.
137. Hanigan WC, Wright RM, Berkman WA, Szymke TE. MR imaging of a false carotid aneurysm. Stroke 1986;1317-9.
138. Sherman R, Gottlieb LJ. Carotid-cavernous sinus fistula complicating a complex shotgun facial injury. Ann Plast Surg 1988;21: 251-6.
139. Grätz KW, Imhof HG, Valavanis A. Traumatic carotid cavernous sinus fistula due to a gun shot injury. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1991;20:280-2.
140. Goodwin JR, Johnson MH. Carotid injury secondary to blunt head trauma: case report. J Trauma 1994;37:119-22.
141. Sedzimir CB: Head injury as a cause of internal carotid thrombosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1955;18:293-6.
142. Mizutani T, Goldberg HI, Parr J, Harper C, Thompson CJ. Cerebral dissecting aneurysm and intimai fibroelastic thickening of cerebral arteries. Case report. J Neurosurg 1982;56:571-6.
143. Grosman H, Fornasier VL, Bonder D, Livingston KE, Platts ME. Dissecting aneurysm of the cerebral arteries. Case report. J Neurosurg 1980;53:693-7.
144. Manz HJ, Vester J, Lavenstein B. Dissecting aneurysm of cerebral arteries in childhood and adolescence. Virchows Archiv 1979;384:325-35.
145. O'Sullivan RM, Robertson WD, Nugent RA, Berry K, Turnbull IM. Supraclinoid carotid artery dissection following unusual trauma. AJNR 1990;11:1150-2.
146. Francis KR, Williams DP, Troost BT. Facial numbness and dysesthesia. New features of carotid artery dissection. Arch Neurol 1987;44:345-6.
147. Maitland CG, Black JL, Smith WA. Abducens nerve palsy due to spontaneous dissection of the internal carotid artery. Arch Neurol 1983;40:448-9.
148. Vargas ME, Desrouleaux JR, Kupersmith MJ. Ophthalmoplegia as a presenting manifestation of internal carotid artery dissection. J Clin Neuro-ophthalmol 1992;12:268-71.
149. Yonas H, Agamanolis D, Takaoka Y, White RJ. Dissecting intracranial aneurysms. Surg Neurol 1977;8:407-15.
150. Friedman AH, Drake CG. Subarachnoid hemorrhage from intracranial dissecting aneurysm. J Neurosurg 1984;62:325-34.
151. Kunze ST, Schiefer W. Angiographic demonstration of a dissecting aneurysm of the middle cerebral artery. Neuroradiology 1971; 2:201-6.
152. Ojemann RG, Fisher CM, Rich JC. Spontaneous dissecting aneurysm of the internal carotid artery. Stroke 1972;3:434-40.
153. Scott GE, Neubuerger KT, Denst J. Dissecting aneurysms of intracranial arteries. Neurology 1960;10:22-7.
154. Bousquet Ch, Lejeune JP, Christiaens JL. Traumatic aneurysm of the supraclinoid internal carotid artery. Case report. Surg Neurol 1989;31:319-22.
155. Shirai S, Tomono Y, Owada T, Maki Y. Traumatic aneurysm of the internal carotid artery. Eur Neurol 1977;15:212-6.
156. King MA, Barkovich AJ, Halbach VV, Hieshima GB, Edwards MSB. Traumatic monocular blindness and associated carotid injuries. Pediatrics 1989;84:128-32.
157. Handa J, Handa H. Severe epistaxis caused by traumatic aneurysm of cavernous carotid artery. Surg Neurol 1976;5:241-3.
158. Ghorayeb BY, Kopaniky DR, Yeakley JW. Massive posterior epistaxis. A manifestation of internal carotid injury at the skull base. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1988;114:1033-7.
159. Chambers EF, Rosenbaum AE, Norman D, Newton TH. Traumatic aneurysms of cavernous internal carotid artery with secondary epistaxis. AJNR 1981;2:405-9.
160. Maurer JJ, Mills M, German WJ. Triad of unilateral blindness, orbital fractures and massive epistaxis after head injury. J Neurosurg 1961;18:837-40.
161. Han MH, Sung MW, Chang KH, Min YG, Han DH, Han MC. Traumatic pseudoaneurysm of the intracavernous ICA presenting with massive epistaxis: imaging diagnosis and endovascular treatment. Laryngoscope 1994;104:370-7.
162. Echols DH, Jackson D. Carotid-cavernous fistula: a perplexing surgical problem. J Neurosurg 1959;16:619-24.
163. Fox AJ, Viñuela F, Pelz DM, et al. Use of detachable balloons for proximal artery occlusion in the treatment of unclippable cerebral aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1987;66:40-6.
164. Simpson RK Jr, Harper RL, Bryan RN. Emergency balloon occlusion for massive epistaxis due to traumatic carotid-cavernous aneurysm. Case report. J Neurosurg 1988;68:142-4.
165. Serbinenko FA. Balloon catheterizatton and occlusion of major cerebral vessels. J Neurosurg 1974;41:125-45.
166. Fein JM, Flamm E. Planned intracranial revascularization before proximal ligation for traumatic aneurysm. Neurosurgery 1979;5: 254-8.
167. Abrahamson IA Jr, Bell LB Jr. Carotid-cavernous fistula syndrome. Am J Opth 1955;39:521-6.
168. Debrun G, Lacour P, Vinuela F, Fox A, Drake CG, Caron JP. Treatment of 54 traumatic carotid-cavernous fistulas. J Neurosurg 1981;55:678-92.
169. Parkinson D. A surgical approach to the cavernous portion of the carotid artery. Anatomical studies and case report. J Neurosurg 1965;23:474-83.
170. Sofferman RA, Fabian RL. Traumatic carotid cavernous sinus fistula. Laryngoscope 1977;87:1140-50.
171. Dohrmann PJ, Batjer HH, Samson D, Suss RA. Recurrent subarachnoid hemorrhage complicating a traumatic carotidcavernous fistula. Neurosurgery 1985;17:480-3.
172. Turner DM, Vangilder JC, Mojtahedi S, Pierson EW. Spontaneous intracerebral hematoma in carotid-cavernous fistula. Report of three cases. J Neurosurg 1983;59:680-6.
173. Mullan S. Treatment of carotid-cavernous fistulas by cavernous sinus occlusion. J Neurosurg 1979;50:131-44.
174. Reider-Grosswasser I, Loewenstein A, Gaton DD, Lazar M. Spontaneous thrombosis of a traumatic cavernous sinus fistula. Brain Inj 1993;7:547-50.
175. Barrow DL, Spector RH, Braun IF, Landman JA, Tindall SC, Tindall GT. Classification and treatment of spontaneous carotid cavernous fistulas. J Neurosurg 1985;62:248-56.
176. Parkinson D, Downs AR, Whytehead LL, Syslak WB. Carotid cavernous fistula: direct repair with preservation of carotid. Surgery 1974;76:882-9.
177. Tsai FY, Hieshima GB, Mehringer CM, Grinnell V, Pribram HW. Delayed effects in the treatment of carotid-cavernous fistulas. AJNR 1983;4:357-61.
178. Brosnahan D, McFadzean RM, Teasdale E. Neuro-ophthalmic features of carotid cavernous fistulas and their treatment by endoarterial balloon embolisation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992;55:553-6.