Neurobiological perspectives on trauma and aging

Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 27-59

  Bergherr, Theresa ^a   Bremner, J Douglas ^c   Southwick, Steven M ^c   Charney, Dennis S ^b   Krystal, John H ^b  

^a VA CONNECTICUT HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^b National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder   (United States)

^c West Haven Campus ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONFERENCE PAPER; CRIME; EMOTIONAL STRESS; GERONTOPSYCHIATRY; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; NEUROBIOLOGY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRISON; VICTIM; WAR;

EID: 0030769043     PISSN: 00221414     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (139)

1. Abercrombie, E. D., & Jacobs, B. L. (1987), Single-unit response of noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus of freely moving cats: I. Acutely presented stressful and non-stressful stimuli. J. Neurosci., 7:2837-2843.
2. Angelucci, L. (1994), The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis: Epigenetic determinants, changes with aging, involvement of NGF. Neurochem. Int., 25(1):53-59.
3. Antonovsky, A., Maoz, B., Dowty, N., & Wijsenbeek, H. (1971), Twenty-five years later: A limited study of the sequelae of the concentration camp experience. Soc. Psychiatry, 6(4):186-193.
4. Aviram, A., Silverberg, D. S., & Carel, R. S. (1987), Hypertension in European immigrants to Israel: The possible effect of the Holocaust. Isr. J. Med. Sci., 23:257-263.
5. Baker, R. R., Menard, S. W., & Johns, L. A. (1989), The military nurse experience in Vietnam: Stress and impact. J. Clini. Psychol., 45(5):736-744.
6. Bauer, M., Priebe, S., Kurten, I., Graf, K.-J., & Baumgartner, A. (1994), Psychological and endocrine abnormalities in refugees from East Germany: Part I. Prolonged stress, psychopathology, and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity. Psychiatry Res., 51:61-73.
7. Beal, A. L. (1995), Post-traumatic stress disorder in prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Dieppe raid: A 50-year follow-up. Can. J. Psychiatry, 40:177-184.
8. Berman, R. M., Krystal, J. H., & Charney, D. S. (1996), Mechanism of action of antidepressants: Monoamine hypotheses and beyond. In: Biology of Schizophrenia and Affective Disease, ed. S. Watson, American Psychiatric Press.
9. Bowman, B. (1982), The Vietnam Veteran ten years on. Austral. New Zealand J. Psychiatry, 16:107-127.
10. Bremner, J. D., Licinio, J., Darnell, A., Krystal, J. H., Owens, M. J., Nemeroff, C. B., & Charney, D. S. (in press), Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor in posttraumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry.
11. _ Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Bronen, R. A., Seibyl, J. P., Southwick, S. M., Delaney, R. C., McCarthy, G., Charney, D. S., & Innis, R. B. (1995), MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry, 152:973-981.
12. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991), Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 48(3):216-222.
13. Burnam, M. A., Stein, J. A., Golding, J. M., Siegel, J. M., Sorenson, S. B., Forsythe, A. B., & Telles, C. A. (1988), Sexual assault and mental disorders in a community population. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 56:843-850.
14. Carmil, D., & Carel, R. S. (1986), Emotional distress and satisfaction in life among Holocaust survivors - a community study of survivors and controls. Psycholog. Med., 16:141-149.
15. Cassens, G., Kuruc, A., Roffman, M., Orsulak, P. J., & Schildkraut, J. J. (1981), Alterations in brain norepinephrine metabolism and behavior induced by environmental stimuli previously paired with inescapable shock. Behav. Brain Res., 2:387-407.
16. Centers for Disease Control (1988b), Health status of Vietnam veterans: II. Physical health. JAMA, 259(18):2708-2714.
17. Charney, D. S., Deutch, A. Y., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Davis, M. (1993), Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 50:294-305.
18. _ Woods, S. W., Krystal, J. H., Nagy, L. M., & Heninger, G. R. (1992), Noradrenergic neuronal dysregulation in panic disorder: The effects of intravenous yohimbine and clonidine in panic disorder patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scand., 86:273-282.
19. Christenson, R. M., Walker, J. I., Ross, D. R., & Maltbie, A. A. (1981), Reactivation of traumatic conflicts. Am. J. Psychiatry, 138(7):984-985.
20. Dimsdale, J. E. (1974), The coping behavior of Nazi concentration camp survivors. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 131(7):792-797.
21. D'Souza, D. C., Charney, D. S., & Krystal, J. H. (1995), Glycine site agonists of the NMDA receptor: A review. CNS Drug Rev., 1(2):227-260.
22. Dupont, A., Bastarache, E., Endroczi, E., & Fortier, C. (1972), Effect of hippocampal stimulation on the plasma thyrotropin (THS) and corticosterone responses to acute cold exposure in the rat. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol., 50:364-367.
23. Eaton, W. W., Sigal, J. J., & Weinfeld, M. (1982), Impairment in Holocaust survivors after 33 years: Data from an unbiased community sample. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 139(6):773-777.
24. Eberly, R. E., & Engdahl, B. E. (1991), Prevalence of somatic and psychiatric disorders among former prisoners of war. Hosp. Community Psychiatry, 42(8):807-813.
25. Eisen, S. A., Goldberg, J., True, W. R., & Henderson, W.G. (1991), A co-twin control study of the effects of the Vietnam War on the self-reported physical health of veterans. Amer. J. Epidemiol., 135:49-58.
26. Eitinger, L. (1971), Organic and psychosomatic aftereffects of concentration camp imprisonment. In: Psychic Traumatization: Aftereffects in Individuals and Communities, ed. H. Krystal & W. G. Niederland. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, pp. 205-215.
27. _ (1973), A follow-up study of the Norwegian concentraton camp survivors' mortality and morbidity. Isr. Ann. Psychiatry Related Disciplines, 11(3):199-209.
28. _ (1980), The concentration camp syndrome and its late sequelae. In: Survivors and Victims and Perpetrators, ed. J. Dimsdale. New York: Hemisphere, pp. 127-162.
29. Ellis, E. M., Atkeson, B. M., & Calhoun, K. S. (1981), An assessment of long-term reaction to rape. J. Abnorm. Psychol., 90(3):263-266.
30. Friedman, M. J., & Schnurr, P. P. (1995), The relationship between trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, and physical health. In: Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to PTSD, ed. M. J. Friedman, D. S. Charney, & A. Y. Deutch. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, pp. 507-524.
31. Glavin, G. B. (1985), Stress and brain noradrenaline: A review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 9:233-243.
32. Goenjian, A. K., Najarian, L. M., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Manoukian, G., Tavosian, A., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1994), Posttraumatic stress disorder in elderly and younger adults after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. Am. J. Psychiatry, 151(6):895-901.
33. Goldstein, G., van Kammen, W., Shelly, C., Miller, D. J., van Kammen, D. P. (1987), Survivors of imprisonment in the Pacific theater during World War II. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 144(9):1210-1213.
34. Gotthardt, U., Schweiger, U., Fahrenberg, J., Lauer, C. J., Holsboer, F., & Heuser, I. (1995), Cortisol, ACTH, and cardiovascular response to a cognitive challenge paradigm in aging and depression. Amer. J. Physiol., 268 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol., 37):R865-R873.
35. Gotthardt, U., Schweiger, U., Fahrenberg, J., Lauer, C. J., Holsboer, F., & Heuser, I. (1995), Cortisol, ACTH, and cardiovascular response to a cognitive challenge paradigm in aging and depression. Amer. J. Physiol., 268 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol., 37):R865-R873.
36. Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C., Gleser, G. C., Leonard, A. C., Korol, M., & Winget, C. (1990), Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Stability of stress symptoms. Amer. J. Orthopsych., 60(1):43-54.
37. Guest, C. S., & Venn, A. J. (1992), Mortality of former prisoners of war and other Australian veterans. Med. J. Austral., 157:132-135.
38. Harbuz, M. S., & Lightman, S. L. (1992), Stress and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis: Acute, chronic and immunological activation. J Endocrinol., 134:327-339.
39. Harel, Z., Kahana, B., & Kahana, E. (1993), Social resources and the mental health of aging Nazi Holocaust survivors and immigrants. In: International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, ed. J. P. Wilson & B. Raphael. New York: Plenum, pp. 241-252.
40. Hauff, E., & Vaglum, P. (1994), Chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnamese refugees: A prospective study of prevalence, course, psychopathology, and stressors. J. Nerv. Mental Dis., 182(2):85-90.
41. Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1987), Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population: Findings of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. NEJM, 317(26):1630-1634.
42. Herman, J. P. (1993), Regulation of adrenocorticosteroid receptor mRNA expression in the central nervous system. Cellular Molecular Neurobiol., 13(4):349-371.
43. _ Patel, P., Akil, H., & Watson, S. (1989), Localization and regulation of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor messenger RNAs in hippocampal formation of the rat. Mol Endocrinol., 3:1886.
44. Heuser, I. J., Gotthardt, U., Schweiger, J., Schmider, J., Lammer, C. H., Dettling, M., & Holsboer, F. (1994), Age-associated changes of pituitary-adrenocorticoid hormone regulation in humans: Importance of gender. Neurobiol. Aging, 15(2):227-231.
45. Hyer, L., Fallon, J. H. Jr., Harrison, W. R., & Boudewyns, P. A. (1987), MMPI overreporting by Vietnam combat veterans. J. Clin. Psychol., 43:79-83.
46. Jacobson, L., & Sapolsky, R. (1991), The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Endocrine Rev., 12(2):118-134.
47. Jensen, T. S., Genefke, I. K., Hylebrandt, N., Pedersen, H., Petersen, H. D., & Weile, B. (1982), Cerebral atrophy in young torture victims. NEJM, 307:1341.
48. Kilpatrick, D. G., Veronen, L. J., & Resick, P.A. (1979), The aftermath of rape: Recent empirical findings. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 49(4):658-669.
49. Kinzie, J. D., & Leung, P. (1989), Clonidine in Cambodian patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Mental Dis., 177:546-550.
50. Klonoff, H., McDougall, G., Clark, C., Kramer, P., & Horgan, J. (1976), The neuropsychological, psychiatric, and physical effects of prolonged and severe stress: 30 years later. J. New. Mental Dis., 163(4):246-251.
51. Kluznick, J. C., Speed, N., Van Valenbury, C., & Magraw, R. (1986), Forty year follow-up of United States prisoners of war. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 143:1443-1446.
52. Kolb, L. C., Burris, B. C., & Griffiths, S. (1984), Propranolol and clonidine in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae, ed. B. A. van der Kolk. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp. 98-105.
53. Koranyi, E. K. (1969), A theoretical review of the survivor syndrome. Dis. Nerv. System, 30(2, Suppl.) 115-118.
54. Kosten, T. R., Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Ostroff, R. B., & Harkness, L. (1987), Sustained urinary norepinephrine and epinephrine elevation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinol., 12:13-20.
55. Krystal, H. (1988), Integration and Self-healing: Affect, Trauma, Alexithymia. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
56. _ Niederland, W. G. (1968), Clinical observations on the survivor syndrome. In: Massive Psychic Trauma, ed. H. Krystal. New York: International Universities Press, pp. 327-349.
57. Krystal, J. H., Bennett, A., Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (1995), Toward a cognitive neuroscience of dissociation and altered memory functions in post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to PTSD, ed. M. J. Friedman, D. S. Charney, & A. Y. Deutch. New York: Raven Press.
58. _ Karper, L. P., Seibyl, J. P., Freeman, G. K., Delaney, R., Bremner, J. D., Heninger, G. R., Bowers, M. B. Jr., & Charney, D. S. (1994), Subanesthetic effects of the NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans: psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine effects. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 51:199-214.
59. _ Kosten, T. R., Perry, B. D., Southwick, S. M., Mason, J. W., & Giller, E. L. Jr. (1989), Neurobiological aspects of PTSD: Review of clinical and preclinical studies. Behav. Ther., 20:177-198.
60. _ Leaf, P. J., Bruce, M. L., & Charney, D. S. (1992), Effects of age and alcoholism on the prevalence of panic disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scand., 85:77-82.
61. _ Nagy, L. M., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (in press). Initial clinical evidence of genetic contributions to post-traumatic stress disorder. In: An International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, ed. Y. Danieli. New York: Plenum.
62. Kuch, K., & Cox, B. J. (1992), Symptoms of PTSD in 124 survivors of the Holocaust. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 149(3):337-340.
63. Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, C. S. (1990).Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the national Vietnam Veterans readjustment study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
64. Lee, K. A., Vaillant, G. E., Torrey, W. C., & Elder, G. H. (1995), A 50-year prospective study of the psychological sequelae of World War II combat. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 152(4):516-522.
65. Lerer, B., Bleich, A., Kotler, M., Garb, R., Hertzberg, M., & Levin, B. (1987), Posttraumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 44:976-981.
66. _ Ebstein, R. P., Shestatzky, M., Shemesh, Z., & Greenberg, D. (1987), Cyclic AMP signal transduction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 144:1324-1327.
67. Lesserman, J., Drossman, D. A., Li, Z., Toomey, T. C., Nachman, G., & Glogau, L. (1996), Sexual and physical abuse history in gastroenterology practice: How types of abuse impact health status. Psychosom. Med., 58:4-15.
68. Levav, I., & Abramson, J. H. (1984), Emotional distress among concentration camp survivors: A community study in Jerusalem. Psychol. Med., 14:215-218.
69. Lima, B. R., Pai, S., Toledo, V., Caris, L., Haro, J. M., Lozano, J., & Santacruz, H. (1993), Emotional distress in disaster victims: A follow-up study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 181(6):388-393.
70. Lipton, M. I., & Schaffer, W. R. (1988), Post-traumatic stress disorder in the older veteran. Military Med., 151(10):522-524.
71. Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Fisher, L., Marx, B., & Monaco, V. (1992), Physical health complaints in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report. J. Traumatic Stress, 5(1):131-141.
72. Lohr, J., & Jeste, D. V. (1988), Locus ceruleus morphometry in aging and schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scand., 77:689-697.
73. Long, N., Chamberlain, K., & Vincent, C. (1992), The health and mental health of New Zealand Vietnam war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. New Zealand Med. J., 105:417-419.
74. Luine, V., Villegas, M., Martinez, C., & McEwen, B. S. (1994), Repeated stress causes reversible impairments of spatial memory performance. Brain Res., 639:167-170.
75. Lupien, S., Lecours, A. R., Lussier, I., Schwarz, G., Nair, N. P. V., & Meaney, M. J. (1994), Basal cortisol levels and cognitive deficits in human aging. J. Neurosci., 14(5):2893-2903.
76. Macleod, A. D. (1994), The reactivation of post-traumatic stress disorder in later life. Austral. New Zealand J. Psychiatry, 28:625-634.
77. Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T. R., Ostroff, R. B., & Podd, L. (1986), Urinary free-cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 174(3):145-149.
78. McEwen, B. S., Angulo, J., Cameron, H., Chao, H. M., Daniels, D., Gannon, M. N., Gould, E., Mendelson, S., Sakai, R., Spencer, R., & Wooley, C. (1992), Paradoxical effects of adrenal steroids on the brain: Protection versus degeneration. Biol Psychiatry, 31:177-199.
79. McFarlane, A. C. (1988a), The aetiology of post-traumatic stress disorders following a natural disaster. Brit. J. Psychiatry, 152:116-121.
80. _ (1988b), The longitudinal course of posttraumatic morbidity. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 176(1):30-39.
81. Meaney, M. J., Aitken, D. H., Bhatnagar, S., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1991), Postnatal handling attenuates certain neuroendocrine, anatomical, and cognitive dysfunctions associated with aging in female rats. Neurobiol. Aging, 12(1):31-38.
82. Mellman, T. A., & Davis, G. C. (1985), Combat-related flashbacks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology and similarity to panic attacks. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 46(9):379-382.
83. Miller, T. W., Martin, W., & Spiro, K. (1989), Traumatic stress disorder: Diagnostic and clinical issues in former prisoners of war. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30(2):139-148.
84. Morgan, C. A. III, Grillon, C., Southwick, S. M., Nagy, L. M., Davis, M., Krystal, J. H., & Charney, D. S. (1995), Yohimbine facilitated acoustic startle in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacol., 117:466-471.
85. _ Southwick, S. M., Grillon, C. M., Nagy, L. M., Davis, M., Krystal, J. H., & Charney, D.S. (1993), Yohimbine enhancement of the acoustic startle response. Psychopharmacol., 110:342-347.
86. Morgan, H.J., Wright, I. S., & van Ravensway, A. (1946), Health of repatriated prisoners of war from the far east. JAMA, 130(15):995-999.
87. Nadelson, C. C., Notman, M. T., Zackson, H., & Gornick, J. (1982), A follow-up study of rape victims. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 139(10):1266-1270.
88. Nagy, L. M., Morgan, C. A. III, Miller, H. L., Southwick, S. M., Merikangas, K. R., Krystal, J. H., & Charney, D. S. (in press), Genetic epidemiology of panic attacks and noradrenergic response in post-traumatic stress disorder: A family history study.
89. Ohry, A., Solomon, Z., Neria, Y., Waysman, M., Ber-On, Z., & Levy, A. (1994), The aftermath of captivity: An 18-year follow-up of Israeli ex-POWs. Behav. Med., 20(1):27-33.
90. Op den Velde, W., Falger, P. R. J., Hovens, J. E., de Groen, J. H. M., Lasschuit, L. J., Van Duijn, H., Schouten, E. G. W. (1993), Posttraumatic stress disorder in Dutch resistance veterans from World War II. In: International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, ed. J. P. Wilson & B. Raphael. New York: Plenum, pp. 219-230.
91. Perry, B. D., Giller, E. L., & Southwick, S. M. (1987), Altered platelet alpha-2 adrenergic binding sites in post-traumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 144:1511-1512.
92. Peters, J., van Kammen, D. P., van Kammen, W. B., & Neylan, T. (1990), Sleep disturbance and computerized axial tomographic scan findings in former prisoners of war. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31(6):535-539.
93. Pitman, R. K., & Orr, S. P. (1990), Twenty-four hour urinary cortisol and catecholamine excretion in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry, 27:245-247.
94. Potts, M. K. (1994), Long-term effects of trauma: Post-traumatic stress among civilian internees of the Japanese during World War II. J. Clin. Psychol., 50(5):681-698.
95. Rainey, J. M., Aleem, S., Ortiz, A., Yeragani, V., Pohl, R., & Berchou, R. (1987), A laboratory procedure for the induction of flashbacks. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 144(10):1317-1319.
96. Rasmussen, K., Marilak, D. A., & Jacobs, B. L. (1986), Single unit activity of the locus coeruleus in the freely moving cat: I. During naturalistic behaviors and in response to simple and complex stimuli. Brain Res., 371:324-334.
97. Resick, P. A., Calhoun, K. S., Atkeson, B. M., & Ellis, E. M. (1981), Social adjustment in victims of sexual assault. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 49(5):705-712.
98. Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993), Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 61(6):984-991.
99. _ Yehuda, R., Pitman, R. K., & Foy, D. W. (1995), Effect of previous trauma on acute plasma cortisol level following rape. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 152(11):1675-1677.
100. Robinson, S., Rapaport-Bar-Sever, M., & Rapaport, J. (1994), The present state of people who survived the Holocaust as children. Acta Psychiatrica Scand., 89:242-245.
101. Sapolsky, R. M. (1992), Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
102. Seyle, H. (1956), The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw Hill.
103. Shalev, A., Bleich, A., & Ursano, R. J. (1990), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Somatic comorbidity and effort tolerance. Psychosom., 31:197-203.
104. Simson, P. E., & Weiss, J. M. (1987), Alpha-2 receptor blockade increases responsiveness of locus coeruleus neurons. J. Neurosci., 7:1732-1740.
105. Skelton, W. P. (1990, March), Avitaminosis in former prisoners of war. VA Practitioner, 103-109.
106. Slusher, M. A., & Hyde, J. E. (1961), Effect of limbic stimulation on release of corticosteroids into the adrenal venous effluent of the cat. Endocrinol., 69:1080-1084.
107. Smith, M. A., Davidson, J., Ritchie, J. C., Kudler, H., Lipper, S., Chappell, P., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1989), The corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry, 26:349-355.
108. Solomon, Z. (1988), Somatic complaints, stress reaction, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A three-year follow-up study. Behav. Med., 14:179-185.
109. _ Prager, E. (1992), Elderly Israeli Holocaust survivors during the Persian Gulf War: A study of psychological distress. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 149:1707-1710.
110. Southwick S. M., Krystal, J. H., Morgan, C. A., Johnson, D. R., Nagy, L. M., Nicolaou, A., Heninger, G. R., & Charney, D. S. (1993), Abnormal noradrenergic function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 50:266-274.
111. _ Morgan, C. A., Darnell, A., Bremner, D., Nicolaou, A. L., Nagy, L. M., & Charney, D. S. (1995), Trauma related symptoms in veterans of Operation Desert Storm: A two year follow-up. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 152(8):1150-1155.
112. Speed, N., Engdahl, B., Schwartz, J., & Eberly, R. (1989), Posttraumatic stress disorder as a consequence of the POW experience. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 177(3):147-153.
113. Squire, L. R (1986), Mechanism of memory. Sci., 232:1612.
114. Stermer, E., Bar, H., & Levy, N. (1991), Chronic functional gastrointestinal symptoms in Holocaust survivors. Amer. J. Gastroenterol., 86(4):417-422.
115. Stein, M., Hannah, C., Koverola, C., Mclarty, B. Neuroanatomic and cognitive correlates of early abuse. Amer. Psychiatric Assn. Syllabus Proc. Summary, 148:113.
116. Sutker, P. B., Allain, A. N., & Winstead, D. K. (1993), Psychopathology and psychiatric diagnoses of World War II Pacific theater prisoner of war survivors and combat veterans. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 150:240-245.
117. _ Winstead, D. K., Galina, Z. H., Allain, A. N. (1990), Assessment of long-term psychosocial sequelae among POW survivors of the Korean conflict. J. Pers. Assessment, 54(1 & 2):170-180.
118. Tennant, C., Goulston, K., & Dent, O. (1986), Australian prisoners of war of the Japanese: Postwar psychiatric hospitalization and psychological morbidity. Austral. New Zealand J. Psychiatry, 20:334-340.
119. _ _ _ (1993), Medical and psychiatric consequences of being a prisoner of war of the Japanese: An Australian follow-up study. In: International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, ed. J.P. Wilson & B. Raphael. New York: Plenum, pp. 231-239.
120. Thienes-Hontos, P., Watson, C. G., & Kucala, T. (1982), Stress-disorder symptoms in Vietnam and Korean War veterans. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol., 50(4):558-561.
121. Tsuda, A., & Tanaka, M. (1985), Differential changes in noradrenaline turnover in specific regions of rat brain produced by controllable and uncontrollable shocks. Behav. Neurosci., 99:802-817.
122. Uno, H., Eisele, S., Akiko, S., Shelton, S., Baker, E., Onofre, D., & Holden, J. (1994), Neurotoxicity of glucocorticoids in the primate brain. Hormones Behav., 28:336-348.
123. van der Kolk, B., Greenberg, M., Boyd, H., & Krystal, J. (1985), Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters, and addiction to trauma: Toward a psychobiology of posttraumatic stress. Biol. Psychiatry, 20:314-325.
124. van Eekelen, J. A. M., Kiss, J. Z., Westphal, H. M., & de Kloet, E. R. (1987), Immunocytochemical study on the intracellular localization of the type 2 glucocorticoid receptor in the rat brain. Brain Res., 436:120-128.
125. Venn, A. J., & Guest, C. S. (1991), Chronic morbidity of former prisoners of wars and other Australian veterans. Med. J. Australia, 155:705-712.
126. White, P., & Faustman, W. (1989), Coexisting physical conditions among inpatients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Med., 154:66-70.
127. Williams, R. L., Medalie, J. H., Zyzanski, S. J., Flocke, S. A., Yaari, S., & Goldbourt, U. (1993), Long term mortality of Nazi concentration camp survivors. J. Clin. Epidemiol., 46(6):573-575.
128. Wolfe, J., Brown, P. J., & Buscela, M. L. (1992), Symptom responses of female Vietnam veterans to Operation Desert Storm. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 149:676-679.
129. _ Schnurr, P. P., Brown, P. J., & Furey, J. (1994), Posttraumatic stress disorder and war-zone exposure as correlates of perceived health in female Vietnam War veterans. J. Can. Clin. Psychol., 62(6):1235-1240.
130. Woods, S. W., Tesar, G. E., Murray, G. B., & Cassem, N. H. (1986), Psychostimulant treatment of depression secondary to medical illness. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 47:12-15.
131. Yehuda, R., Boisoneau, D., Lowy, M. T., & Giller, E. L. (1995b), Dose-response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 52(7):583-593.
132. _ Kahana, B., Binder-Brynes, K., Southwick, S. M., Mason, J. W., & Giller, E. J. (1995a), Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 152(7):982-986.
133. _ Southwick, S. M., & Giller, E. L. (1994), Depressive features in Holocaust survivors with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Traumatic Stress, 7(4):699-704.
134. _ Lowy, M. T., Southwick, S. M., Shaffer, D., & Giller, E. L. Jr. (1991), Lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor number in posttraumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 148:499-504.
135. _ Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., Bremner, D., Charney, D. S., & Mason, J. W. (1993), Enhanced suppression of cortisol following dexamethasone administration in posttraumatic stress disorder. Amer. J. Psychiatry, 150:83-86.
136. _ _ Nussbaum, G., Wahby, V., Giller, E. L., & Mason, J. (1990), Low urinary cortisol excretion in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 187:366-369.
137. _ Teicher, M. H., Trestman, R. L., Levengood, R. A., & Siever, L. J. (1996), Cortisol regulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: A chronobiological analysis. Biol. Psychiatry, 40(2):79-88.
138. Zeiss, R. A., & Dickman, H. R. (1989), PTSD 40 years later: Incidence and person-situation correlates in former POWs. J. Clin. Psychol., 45(1):80-87.
139. Zola-Morgan, S., Squire, L. R., & Mishkin, M. (1982), The neuroanatomy of amnesia: Amygdala-hippocampus versus temporal stem. Sci., 218:1337-1339.