Native Americans, the market revolution, and culture change: The Choctaw cattle economy, 1690-1830

Agricultural History

Volumn 71, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 1-17

  Carson, James Taylor ^a  

^a QUEEN S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL CHANGE; HISTORICAL STUDY; LIVESTOCK FARMING; NATIVE AMERICANS; SOCIAL HISTORY;

USA, MISSISSIPPI VALLEY;

EID: 0030757662     PISSN: 00021482     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
2. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
3. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
4. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
5. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
6. Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). The Indians in Sellers' study vanish rom the scene before the market economy emerges. Among other sutides of the market's impact, Nancy Cott's The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977) was the first to argue that women's "separate spheres" and a "cult of domesticity" emerged to segregate women from the market revolution in New England. In contrast to Cott, Catherine Clinton's The Plantation Mistress: Women's World in the Old South (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982) argues that southern women did not necessarilty experience the same changes that had occurred in the North. Nancy Hewitt's Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984) has broadened further the debate in American historigraphy on the market economy's impact on gender by examining women from different social classes and their responses to social and economic change. Anthropologists Henrietta L. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender: An Anthropological Study of the Marakwet of Kenya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); and Regina Smith Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change: The Nandi of Kenya (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985) have argued that in Kenya the partriarchal structure of the Marakwet and Nandi peoples structured their responses to colonialism and the market revolution in ways that perpetuated men's dominance and weakened the position of women. Their work and that of Cott, Clinton, and Hewitt suggest that far from exerting a uniform influence, the market revolution caused disparate, culturally conditioned changes in economic production and gender segmentation.
7. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
8. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
9. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
10. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
11. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
12. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
13. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
14. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
15. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
16. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
17. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
18. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
19. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933); Jack D. L. Holmes, "Joseph Piernas and the Nascent Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 17 (1966): 13-26; Jack D. L. Holmes, "Livestock in Spanish Natchez," Journal of Mississippi History 23 (October 1961): 15-37; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Antebellum Mississippi (New York: Octagon Books, 1971); John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Kenneth D. Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry in Southeastern Mississippi from its Beginnings to 1860" (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1970); John D. W. Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest: A Reinterpretation," Western Historical Quarterly 8 (April 1977): 167-87; Terry Jordan, "The Origins of Anglo-American Cattle Ranching in Texas: A Documentation of Diffusion from the Lower South," Economic Geography 45 (January 1969): 63-87; Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers: Origins, Diffusion, and Differentiation (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993); Lauren C. Post, "The Old Cattle Industry of Southwest Louisiana," McNeese Review 9 (1957): 43-55; Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983). See also Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 48-58, for a discussion of cattle raising among the Choctaws in Indian territory; and Lousise Spindler, Culture Chang and Modernization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977) for an overview of cultural change and adaptation.
20. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
21. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
22. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
23. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
24. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
25. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
26. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
27. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
28. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
29. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David
30. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
31. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
32. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
33. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
34. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
35. Charles W. Arnade, "Cattle Raising in Spanish Florida, 1513-1763," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 116-24; William Beer, ed., Early Census Tables of Louisiana, vol. 5 of Publications of the Louisiana Historical Society (New Orleans: Tulane University Press, 1911), 79-104; David I. Bushnell Jr., "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1733-35," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 80, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1927); Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., "Louisiana in 1724: Banet's Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, 20 December 1724," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1929): 121-33; Gary Dunbar, "Colonial Carolina Cowpens," Agricultural History 35 (July 1961): 125-30; M. de Rémonville, "Memoir, addressed to Count de Pontchartrain, on the importance of Establishing a colony in Louisiana"; André Pénicault, Annals of Louisiana, vol. 1 of Historical Collections of Louisiana and Florida, Including Translations of Original Manuscripts Relating to Their Discovery and Settlement with Numerous Historical and Biographical Notes, new series, ed. Benjamin French (New York: J. Sabin & Sons, 1869), 2-14, 62, 144; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 1, 79; Pierre Margry, Découvertes et Établissements des Français dans l'Ouest et dans le Sud de l'Amerique Septentrionale (1614-1754), vol. 6 (Paris: Imprimerie D. Jouaust, 1888), 245-46; Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, ed. Joseph Tregle Jr. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1975), 166; Lauren C. Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana as Mentioned in the Literature with References to Sources, Varieties, and Uses," Louisiana Historical Quarterly 16 (October 1933): 560-63; Lauren C. Post, "Some Notes on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana," Louisiana History 3 (Summer 1962): 233-34; Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives, 1729-1740: French Dominion, vol. 3 (Jackson: Press of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1932), 268; Nancy M. Surrey, The Commerce of Louisiana during the French Regime, 1699-1763 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1916), 253-55; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, vol. 57 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1900), 257; Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, & Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), see particularly chapters 1, 2, and 3.
36. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida; a Facsimile Reproduction of the 1775 Ed. (1775; reprint, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1962), 71, 76; White, Roots of Dependency, chap. 2, 4; Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. and trans. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 169-70; John Swanton, ed., "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no. 2 (Lancaster, Penn.: American Anthropological Society), 59, 67-68; Patricia K. Galloway, "Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746-1750," Journal of Mississippi History 44 (November 1982): 289-327.
37. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida; a Facsimile Reproduction of the 1775 Ed. (1775; reprint, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1962), 71, 76; White, Roots of Dependency, chap. 2, 4; Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. and trans. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 169-70; John Swanton, ed., "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no. 2 (Lancaster, Penn.: American Anthropological Society), 59, 67-68; Patricia K. Galloway, "Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746-1750," Journal of Mississippi History 44 (November 1982): 289-327.
38. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida; a Facsimile Reproduction of the 1775 Ed. (1775; reprint, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1962), 71, 76; White, Roots of Dependency, chap. 2, 4; Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. and trans. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 169-70; John Swanton, ed., "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no. 2 (Lancaster, Penn.: American Anthropological Society), 59, 67-68; Patricia K. Galloway, "Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746-1750," Journal of Mississippi History 44 (November 1982): 289-327.
39. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida; a Facsimile Reproduction of the 1775 Ed. (1775; reprint, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1962), 71, 76; White, Roots of Dependency, chap. 2, 4; Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. and trans. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 169-70; John Swanton, ed., "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no. 2 (Lancaster, Penn.: American Anthropological Society), 59, 67-68; Patricia K. Galloway, "Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746-1750," Journal of Mississippi History 44 (November 1982): 289-327.
40. Bernard Romans, A Concise Natural History of East and West Florida; a Facsimile Reproduction of the 1775 Ed. (1775; reprint, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1962), 71, 76; White, Roots of Dependency, chap. 2, 4; Jean-Bernard Bossu, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1751-1762, ed. and trans. Seymour Feiler (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 169-70; John Swanton, ed., "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," in Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no. 2 (Lancaster, Penn.: American Anthropological Society), 59, 67-68; Patricia K. Galloway, "Choctaw Factionalism and Civil War, 1746-1750," Journal of Mississippi History 44 (November 1982): 289-327.
41. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
42. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
43. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
44. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
45. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
46. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
47. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
48. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
49. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
50. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
51. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
52. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
53. Marc de Villiers du Tarage, "Notes sur les Chartas d'aprés les journaux de voyage de Régis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234; Cyrus Byington, "A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 46 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1915). Besides the Choctaw language and the Mobilian trade language, the Wichitas, Biloxis, Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws used some form of vaca for cattle. David S. Rood, Wichita Grammar (New York: Garland Publishing, 1976), 295; John Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton, eds., A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 47 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1912), 301; Durbin Feeling, Cherokee-English Dictionary (Talequah: Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, 1975), 187; Henry Frieland Buckner, A Grammar of the Masjwke [Muskogee], or Creek Language: to Which Are Prefixed Lessons in Spelling, Reading, and Defining (Marion, Ala.: Domestic and Indian Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1869), 35; James M. Crawford, The Mobilian Trade Language (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978), 4, 76, 83; Kenneth H. York, "Mobilian: The Indian Lingua Franca of Colonial Louisiana," in La Salle and His Legacy: Frenchmen and Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley, ed. Patricia K. Galloway (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1982), 139-45. See J. L. Dilliard, "The Maritime (Perhaps Lingua Franca) Relations of a Special Variety of the Gulf Corridor," Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 2(1987): 244-49, for a discussion of the diffUsion of Spanish loanwords in the Gulf Coast region; Terry Crowley, An Introduction to Historical linguistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 267, 308; Theodora Bynon, Historical Linguistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 256-61; M. Mosha, "Loan-words in Luganda: A Search for Guides in Adaptation of African Languages to Modern Conditions," in Language Use and Social Change, ed. W. H. Whiteley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 288-308; Florian Coulmas, ed., Language Adaptation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), for discussions on the development of pidgins and incorporation of loanwords.
54. The river was named "bouk ouaka apouka" (Bok wak hopohka). Marc de Villiers du Terrage, "Notes sur les Chactas d'aprjs les journaux de voyage de RJgis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234-35; James Merrell, The Indians New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
55. The river was named "bouk ouaka apouka" (Bok wak hopohka). Marc de Villiers du Terrage, "Notes sur les Chactas d'aprjs les journaux de voyage de RJgis du Roullet (1729-1732)," Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris 15 (1923): 234-35; James Merrell, The Indians New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
56. Bushnell, "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1732-1735"; John R. Swanton, "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no, 2 (1918): 71, describes a Choctaw medicine man using a horn in his treatments but does not specify whether it was a cow or buffalo horn. The use of buffalo wool in the treatment suggests it may have been a buffalo horn, but, like powder horns, Choctaws could have used both types.
57. Bushnell, "Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana, 1732-1735"; John R. Swanton, "An Early Account of the Choctaw Indians," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 4, no, 2 (1918): 71, describes a Choctaw medicine man using a horn in his treatments but does not specify whether it was a cow or buffalo horn. The use of buffalo wool in the treatment suggests it may have been a buffalo horn, but, like powder horns, Choctaws could have used both types.
58. White, Roots of Dependency, 102-5; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Horatio B. Cushman, A History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians (Greenville, Tex.: Headlight Publishing House, 1899), 389-91, 403; Francis Armstrong to Lewis Cass, 21 September 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Choctaw Agency, 1824-1876, Reel 169, Microfilm Series M234, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives [hereafter RG 75]; Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Robinson, 1824), 224.
59. White, Roots of Dependency, 102-5; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Horatio B. Cushman, A History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians (Greenville, Tex.: Headlight Publishing House, 1899), 389-91, 403; Francis Armstrong to Lewis Cass, 21 September 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Choctaw Agency, 1824-1876, Reel 169, Microfilm Series M234, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives [hereafter RG 75]; Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Robinson, 1824), 224.
60. White, Roots of Dependency, 102-5; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Horatio B. Cushman, A History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians (Greenville, Tex.: Headlight Publishing House, 1899), 389-91, 403; Francis Armstrong to Lewis Cass, 21 September 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Choctaw Agency, 1824-1876, Reel 169, Microfilm Series M234, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives [hereafter RG 75]; Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Robinson, 1824), 224.
61. White, Roots of Dependency, 102-5; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Horatio B. Cushman, A History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians (Greenville, Tex.: Headlight Publishing House, 1899), 389-91, 403; Francis Armstrong to Lewis Cass, 21 September 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Choctaw Agency, 1824-1876, Reel 169, Microfilm Series M234, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives [hereafter RG 75]; Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Robinson, 1824), 224.
62. White, Roots of Dependency, 102-5; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Horatio B. Cushman, A History of the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez Indians (Greenville, Tex.: Headlight Publishing House, 1899), 389-91, 403; Francis Armstrong to Lewis Cass, 21 September 1831, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Choctaw Agency, 1824-1876, Reel 169, Microfilm Series M234, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75, National Archives [hereafter RG 75]; Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America Written During a Tour in the United States and Canada, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Robinson, 1824), 224.
63. John McKee to Choctaw Headmen, 11 December 1815, Letters Received by the Secretary of War Relating to Indian Affairs, 1800-1823, Reel 1, Microfilm Series M271, War Department, RG 75; Dunbar Rowland, ed., Official Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1801-1816, vol. 1 (Jackson, Miss., 1917), 13, 60; Dunbar Rowland, ed., The Mississippi Territorial Archive, 1798-1803, vol. 1 (Nashville, Tenn.: Brandon Printing, 1905), 32, 350, 393, 527-29; Lawrence Kinnaird, ed., "Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794," Annual Report of the American Historical Association, vol. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1949), 26; Roster of Choctaws claiming to have lost horses during removal, 8 October 1837, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Reel 184, Microfilm Series M234, Choctaw Agency West, 1825-1838, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75; Treaty of Hopewell, 3 January 1786, Articles 4 and 5, Reel 2, Microfilm Series M668, Ratified Indian Treaties, 1722-1869, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75.
64. John McKee to Choctaw Headmen, 11 December 1815, Letters Received by the Secretary of War Relating to Indian Affairs, 1800-1823, Reel 1, Microfilm Series M271, War Department, RG 75; Dunbar Rowland, ed., Official Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1801-1816, vol. 1 (Jackson, Miss., 1917), 13, 60; Dunbar Rowland, ed., The Mississippi Territorial Archive, 1798-1803, vol. 1 (Nashville, Tenn.: Brandon Printing, 1905), 32, 350, 393, 527-29; Lawrence Kinnaird, ed., "Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794," Annual Report of the American Historical Association, vol. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1949), 26; Roster of Choctaws claiming to have lost horses during removal, 8 October 1837, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Reel 184, Microfilm Series M234, Choctaw Agency West, 1825-1838, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75; Treaty of Hopewell, 3 January 1786, Articles 4 and 5, Reel 2, Microfilm Series M668, Ratified Indian Treaties, 1722-1869, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75.
65. John McKee to Choctaw Headmen, 11 December 1815, Letters Received by the
66. John McKee to Choctaw Headmen, 11 December 1815, Letters Received by the Secretary of War Relating to Indian Affairs, 1800-1823, Reel 1, Microfilm Series M271, War Department, RG 75; Dunbar Rowland, ed., Official Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1801-1816, vol. 1 (Jackson, Miss., 1917), 13, 60; Dunbar Rowland, ed., The Mississippi Territorial Archive, 1798-1803, vol. 1 (Nashville, Tenn.: Brandon Printing, 1905), 32, 350, 393, 527-29; Lawrence Kinnaird, ed., "Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765-1794," Annual Report of the American Historical Association, vol. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1949), 26; Roster of Choctaws claiming to have lost horses during removal, 8 October 1837, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Reel 184, Microfilm Series M234, Choctaw Agency West, 1825-1838, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75; Treaty of Hopewell, 3 January 1786, Articles 4 and 5, Reel 2, Microfilm Series M668, Ratified Indian Treaties, 1722-1869, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75.
67. William Simpson, Abstract of debts owed to Panton, Leslie and Company, 20 August 1803, Letters Received by the Secretary of War Relating to Indian Affairs, 1800-1823, Reel 1, Microfilm Series M271, War Department, RG 75; Article 2, Treaty of Mount Dexter, 16 November 1805, Ratified Indian Treaties, 1722-1869, Reel 3, Microfilm Series M668, Bureau of Indian Affairs, RG 75.
68. Indent Books, 14 December 1805, 24 January 1809, 6 February 1809, and Miscellaneous Accounts, 3 April 1816, Reels 1, 2, 3, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, 1803-1824, RG 75; Deborah A. Hay, "Fort St. Stephens and Fort Confederation: Two U.S. Factories for the Choctaw, 1802-1822" (master's thesis, Auburn University, 1979), 39-43, 88-93, 112.
69. White, Roots of Dependency, chaps. 4, 5; Daniel H. Usner Jr., "American Indians on the Cotton Frontier: Changing Economic Relations with Citizens and Slaves in the Mississippi Territory," Journal of American History 72 (September 1985): 297-98; Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 102-4.
70. White, Roots of Dependency, chaps. 4, 5; Daniel H. Usner Jr., "American Indians on the Cotton Frontier: Changing Economic Relations with Citizens and Slaves in the Mississippi Territory," Journal of American History 72 (September 1985): 297-98; Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 102-4.
71. White, Roots of Dependency, chaps. 4, 5; Daniel H. Usner Jr., "American Indians on the Cotton Frontier: Changing Economic Relations with Citizens and Slaves in the Mississippi Territory," Journal of American History 72 (September 1985): 297-98; Michael F. Doran, "Antebellum Cattle Herding in the Indian Territory," Geographical Review 66 (January 1976): 102-4.
72. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
73. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
74. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
75. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
76. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
77. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
78. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
79. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
80. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
81. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
82. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
83. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
84. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 182-83; Missionary Herald 18 (May 1822): 150; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 460, 463; Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 23, 241, 253; Byington, Dictionary of the Choctaw Language, 74, 77, 361-62; Francis Baily, Journal of a Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America in 1796 and 1797 (London: Baily Brothers, 1856), 373; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 26, 65; Harry Toulmin, comp., Digest of the Statutes of the Mississippi Territory (Natchez, Miss.: Territorial Publisher, 1807), 403; Dunbar, "Colonial Cowpens," 125-30; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 167-87; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsmen: A Reinterpretation," Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66; Daybook entries, 18 August 1808, 16 September 1808, 22 May 1809, 13 July 1809, 9 October 1809, 18 April 1810, 8 March 1811, and 19 February 1813, Daybooks, 1803-1824, Reel 4, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, RG 75; Henry Halbert, "Origins of Mashulaville," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 393; André Michaux, "Travels to the West of the Allegheny Mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee,..." in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, ed. Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clarke, 1904), 246.
85. Niles' Weekly Register 38 (3 July 1830): 345; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 2, 812, 1042; United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 30. In 1828 the American Board missionaries took a census of the Choctaw cattle herd in the eastern district of the nation and counted 5,627 people and 11,661 cattle, yielding a ratio of 2.07 cattle per capita. Using this ratio I have reconstructed the Choctaw herd for a total population of 21,000 Choctaws in 1828 to be over 43,000 animals. Missionary Herald 25 (February 1829): 61, 153; Missionary Herald 17 (April 1821): 110.
86. Niles' Weekly Register 38 (3 July 1830): 345; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 2, 812, 1042; United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 30. In 1828 the American Board missionaries took a census of the Choctaw cattle herd in the eastern district of the nation and counted 5,627 people and 11,661 cattle, yielding a ratio of 2.07 cattle per capita. Using this ratio I have reconstructed the Choctaw herd for a total population of 21,000 Choctaws in 1828 to be over 43,000 animals. Missionary Herald 25 (February 1829): 61, 153; Missionary Herald 17 (April 1821): 110.
87. Niles' Weekly Register 38 (3 July 1830): 345; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 2, 812, 1042; United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 30. In 1828 the American Board missionaries took a census of the Choctaw cattle herd in the eastern district of the nation and counted 5,627 people and 11,661 cattle, yielding a ratio of 2.07 cattle per capita. Using this ratio I have reconstructed the Choctaw herd for a total population of 21,000 Choctaws in 1828 to be over 43,000 animals. Missionary Herald 25 (February 1829): 61, 153; Missionary Herald 17 (April 1821): 110.
88. Niles' Weekly Register 38 (3 July 1830): 345; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 2, 812, 1042; United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 30. In 1828 the American Board missionaries took a census of the Choctaw cattle herd in the eastern district of the nation and counted 5,627 people and 11,661 cattle, yielding a ratio of 2.07 cattle per capita. Using this ratio I have reconstructed the Choctaw herd for a total population of 21,000 Choctaws in 1828 to be over 43,000 animals. Missionary Herald 25 (February 1829): 61, 153; Missionary Herald 17 (April 1821): 110.
89. Niles' Weekly Register 38 (3 July 1830): 345; Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southeastern United States to 1860, vol. 2, 812, 1042; United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 30. In 1828 the American Board missionaries took a census of the Choctaw cattle herd in the eastern district of the nation and counted 5,627 people and 11,661 cattle, yielding a ratio of 2.07 cattle per capita. Using this ratio I have reconstructed the Choctaw herd for a total population of 21,000 Choctaws in 1828 to be over 43,000 animals. Missionary Herald 25 (February 1829): 61, 153; Missionary Herald 17 (April 1821): 110.
90. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
91. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
92. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
93. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
94. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
95. Senate, Report on Indian Tribes, 20th Cong., 2nd sess., 3 January 1829, vol. 1, S. Doc. 27, 6; Guice, "Cattle Raisers of the Old Southwest," 175-77; Israel, "A Geographical Analysis of the Cattle Industry," 5-7, 79; Thomas L. McKenney, Memoirs, Official and Personal..., vol. 1 (New York: Paine and Burgess, 1846), 323. In the absence of figures that might reveal how much of their herds Choctaws consumed annually, I have used Leonard Brinkman's estimates for cattle weight and Harold K. Schneider's figure of 10 percent of the herd annually as a maximum for consumption, coupled with his estimation that a cow yields half of its body weight in meat. Choctaw cattle probably weighed about six hundred pounds. Harold K. Schneider, Livestock and Equality in East Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 62, 101; Leonard W. Brinkman Jr., "The Historical Geography of Improved Cattle in the United States to 1870" (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1964), 38.
96. William A. Love, "Moshulitubbee's Prairie Village," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford, Miss.: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 375; Missionary Herald 17 (March 1821): 74; Missionary Herald 19 (January 1823): 9-10; Samuel Brown, The Western Gazetteer; or Emigrant's Directory Containing a Geographical Description of the Western States and Territories (Auburn, N.Y.: H. C. Southwick, 1817), 242.
97. William A. Love, "Moshulitubbee's Prairie Village," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford, Miss.: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 375; Missionary Herald 17 (March 1821): 74; Missionary Herald 19 (January 1823): 9-10; Samuel Brown, The Western Gazetteer; or Emigrant's Directory Containing a Geographical Description of the Western States and Territories (Auburn, N.Y.: H. C. Southwick, 1817), 242.
98. William A. Love, "Moshulitubbee's Prairie Village," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford, Miss.: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 375; Missionary Herald 17 (March 1821): 74; Missionary Herald 19 (January 1823): 9-10; Samuel Brown, The Western Gazetteer; or Emigrant's Directory Containing a Geographical Description of the Western States and Territories (Auburn, N.Y.: H. C. Southwick, 1817), 242.
99. William A. Love, "Moshulitubbee's Prairie Village," Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 7 (Oxford, Miss.: Mississippi Historical Society, 1903), 375; Missionary Herald 17 (March 1821): 74; Missionary Herald 19 (January 1823): 9-10; Samuel Brown, The Western Gazetteer; or Emigrant's Directory Containing a Geographical Description of the Western States and Territories (Auburn, N.Y.: H. C. Southwick, 1817), 242.
100. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
101. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
102. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
103. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
104. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
105. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (October 1819): 461; Panoplist and Missionary Herald 15 (December 1819): 535; Louis LeClerc de Milford, Memoir or a Cursory Glance at My Different Travels & My Sojourn in the Creek Nation, ed. John Francis McDermott, trans. Geraldine de Courcy (Chicago: R. R. Donnelly and Sons, 1956), 204; White, Roots of Dependency, 105. For further discussions of Choctaw funeral rites, see Hodgson, Letters from North America, vol. 1, 216; Henry Frieland Buckner, "Burial among the Choctaws," American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 2 (July-September 1879): 55-58.
106. Hodgson, Letters from North America, 1: 224, 241, 253. Hodgson does not state that women milked the cows and cooked the steaks. In the absence of documentary evidence, I have used the methodology of ethnohistory and my own interpretation of what we know about the Choctaws to infer that it was women who did this.
107. Mary Haas, "Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati," in Language in Culture and Society, ed. Dell Hymes (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 228-33; Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (June 1992): 332-45.
108. Mary Haas, "Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati," in Language in Culture and Society, ed. Dell Hymes (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 228-33; Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (June 1992): 332-45.
109. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender, 66-67, 144; Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change, 9-11, 25-28, 153-55, 191, 229, 243; Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood.
110. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender, 66-67, 144; Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change, 9-11, 25-28, 153-55, 191, 229, 243; Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood.
111. Moore, Space, Text, and Gender, 66-67, 144; Oboler, Women, Power, and Economic Change, 9-11, 25-28, 153-55, 191, 229, 243; Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood.
112. John R. Swanton, "Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choctaw Indians," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 103 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931), 139-40; Henry Clark Benson, Life Among the Choctaw Indians (Cincinnati: L Swormstedt & A. Poe, 1850), 31-32.
113. John R. Swanton, "Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choctaw Indians," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 103 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931), 139-40; Henry Clark Benson, Life Among the Choctaw Indians (Cincinnati: L Swormstedt & A. Poe, 1850), 31-32.
114. Amelia Rector Bell, "Separate People: Speaking of Creek Men and Women," American Anthropologist 92 (June 1990): 332-35. The Choctaw names come from a roster of Choctaws claiming to have lost possessions during removal, 8 October 1837, Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880, Reel 184, Microfilm Series M234, Choctaw Agency West, 1825-1838, RG 75.
115. du Pratz, History of Louisiana, 234; Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana," 560; U. P. Hedrick, The Peaches of New York (Albany: J. B. Lynn, 1917), 44-45.
116. du Pratz, History of Louisiana, 234; Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana," 560; U. P. Hedrick, The Peaches of New York (Albany: J. B. Lynn, 1917), 44-45.
117. du Pratz, History of Louisiana, 234; Post, "The Domestic Animals and Plants of French Louisiana," 560; U. P. Hedrick, The Peaches of New York (Albany: J. B. Lynn, 1917), 44-45.
118. White, Roots of Dependency, 103-5, 130-37; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Hedrick, The Peaches of New York, 44-45.
119. White, Roots of Dependency, 103-5, 130-37; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Hedrick, The Peaches of New York, 44-45.
120. White, Roots of Dependency, 103-5, 130-37; Missionary Herald 25 (November 1829): 350; Hedrick, The Peaches of New York, 44-45.
121. Baily, Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America, 373; Eron Opha Rowland, "Peter Chester, Third Governor of the Province of West Florida under British Dominion, 1770-1781," in Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 5, Centenary Series, Franklin L. Riley, ed. (Jackson: Mississippi Historical Society, 1925), 83-84; Lists of travel expenses, George Gaines, 31 March 1811 and 30 September 1811, Miscellaneous Accounts, 1811-1815, Reel 2, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, 1803-1824, RG 75.
122. Baily, Tour in Unsettled Parts of North America, 373; Eron Opha Rowland, "Peter Chester, Third Governor of the Province of West Florida under British Dominion, 1770-1781," in Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. 5, Centenary Series, Franklin L. Riley, ed. (Jackson: Mississippi Historical Society, 1925), 83-84; Lists of travel expenses, George Gaines, 31 March 1811 and 30 September 1811, Miscellaneous Accounts, 1811-1815, Reel 2, Microfilm Series T500, Records of the Choctaw Trading House, Under the Office of Indian Trade, 1803-1824, RG 75.
123. Panoplist and Missionary Herald 16 (July 1820): 320.