Sex differences in schizophrenia: Epidemiology, genetics and the brain

International Review of Psychiatry

Volumn 9, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 399-408

  Goldstein, Jill M ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS MENTAL HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NEUROLEPTIC AGENT;

BRAIN DISEASE; BRAIN FUNCTION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; IMAGING; INCIDENCE; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; ONSET AGE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEX DIFFERENCE; SYMPTOM;

EID: 0030728115     PISSN: 09540261     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09540269775268     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. ANDREASEN, N. C., EHRHARDT, J. C., SWAYZE, V. W., ALLIGER, R. J., YUH, W. T., COHEN, G. & ZIEBELL, S. (1990). Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in schizophrenia: the pathophysiologic significance of structural abnormalities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 35-44.
2. ANDREASEN, N. C., FLASHMAN, L., FLAUM, M. et al. (1994). Regional brain abnormalities in schizophrenia measured with magnetic resonance imaging. JAMA, 272, 1763-1769.
3. ANDREASON, P. J., ZAMETKIN, A. J., GUO, A. C. et al. (1994). Gender differences in regional cerebral glucose metabolism in normal volunteers. Psychiatry Research, 51, 175-183.
4. ANGERMEYER, M. C. & KUHN, L. (1988). Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. An overview. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Science, 237, 351-364.
5. ANGERMEYER, M. C., GOLDSTEIN, J. M. & KUHN, L. (1989). Gender differences in schizophrenia, rehospitalization and community survival. Psychological Medicine, 19, 365-382.
6. ANGERMEYER, M. C., KUHN, L. & GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1990). Gender and the course of schizophrenia: differences in treated outcomes. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 293-307.
7. AYLWARD, E., WALKER, E. & BETTES, B. (1984). Intelligence in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 10(3), 430-459.
8. BAXTER, L. R., MAZZIOTTA, J. C., PHELPS, M. E., SELIN, C. E., GUZE, B. H. & FAIRBANKS, L. (1986). Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in normal human females versus normal males. Psychiatry Research, 21, 237-45.
9. BELLODI, L, BUSSOLENI, C, SCORZA-SMERALDI, R. et al. (1986). Family study of schizophrenia, exploratory analysis for relevant factors. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 12, 120-128.
10. BENES, F. M., TUTLE, M., KHAN, Y. & FAROL, P. (1994). Myelination of a key relay zone in the hippocampal formation occurs in the human brain during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 477-484.
11. BOGERTS, B., ASHTARI, M., DEGREEF, G., ALVIR, J. M. J., BILDER, R. M. & LIEBERMAN, J. A. (1990). Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging, 35, 1-13.
12. CARPENTER, W. T., HEINRICHS, D. W. & WAGMAN, A. M. I. (1988). Deficit and nondeficit form of schizophrenia: the concept. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 578-583.
13. CASANOVA, M. F., SANDERS, R. D., GOLDBERG, T. E., BIGELOW, L. B., CHRISTISON, G., FULLER-TORREY, E. & WEINBERGER, D. R. (1990). Morphometry of the corpus callosum in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia, a magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 53, 416-421.
14. CASTLE, D. J. & WESSELY, S. et al. (1991). The incidence of operationally defined schizophrenia in Camberwell 1965-1984. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 790-794.
15. CAVINESS, V. S., KENNEDY, D. N., RICHELME, C., RADEMACHER, J. & FILIPED, P. A. (1996). The human brain age 7-11 years: a volumetric analysis based upon magnetic resonant images. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 726-736.
16. CHEEK, F. A. (1964). Serendipitous finding, Sex roles and schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 69, 393-400.
17. CHEN, W. J., FARAONE, S. V., ORAV, E. J. & TSUANG, M. T. (1992). Estimating age at onset distributions, the bias from prevalent cases and its impact on risk estimation. Genetic Epidemiology, 2, 219-238.
18. CHILDERS, S. E. & HARDING, C. M. (1990). Premorbid social functioning, and long-term outcome in DSM-III schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 309-318.
19. COLLAER, M. L. & HINES, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: a role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55-107.
20. COOPER, J. E., GOODHEAD, D., CRAIG, T., HARRIS, M., HOWAT, J. & KORER, J. (1987). The incidence of schizophrenia in Nottingham. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 619-626.
21. COPOLOV, D. L., MCGORRY, P. D., SINGH, B. S. et al. (1990). The influence of gender on the classification of psychotic disorders - a multidiagnostic approach. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82, 8-13.
22. CROW, T. J. (1988). Sex chromosomes and psychosis, the case for a pseudoautosomal locus. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 675-683.
23. DELISI, L. E., DEVOTO, M., LOFTHOUSE, R. et al. (1994a). Search for linkage to schizophrenia on the X and Y chromosomes. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 54, 113-121.
24. DELISI, L. E., HOFF, A. L., NEALE, C. & KUSHNER, M. (1994b). Asymmetries in the superior temporal lobe in male and female first-episode schizophrenic patients: measures of the planum temporale and superior temporal gyrus by MRI. Schizophrenia Research, 12, 19-28.
25. DIAMOND, M. C. (1989). Sex and the cerebral cortex. Biological Psychiatry, 25, 823-825.
26. DIPAOLO, T., PAYET, P. & LABRIE, F. (1981). Effect of chronic estradiol and haloperidol treatment on striatal dopamine receptors. European Journal of Psychiatry, 73, 105-106.
27. EATON, W. W., MORTENSEN, P. B., HERRMAN, H., FREEMAN, H., BILKER, W., BURGESS, P. & WOOFF, K. (1992). Long-term course of hospitalization. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18(2), 217-228.
28. ERLENMEYER-KIMLING, L., KESTENBAUM, C., BIRD, H. & HILLDOFF, U. (1984). Assessment of the New York High-Risk pRoject subjects in Sample A who are now clinical deviants. In: N. WATT, E. J. ANTHONY, L. C. WYNNE & J. E. ROLF (Eds), Children at risk for schizophrenia: a longitudinal perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29. FALKAI, P., BOGERTS, B., BENNO, G., PFEIFFER, U., MACHUS, B., FOLSCH-REETZ, B., MAJTENYI, C. & OVARY, I. (1992). Loss of sylvian fissure asymmetry in schizophrenia, a quantitative post-mortem study. Schizophrenia Research, 7, 23-32.
30. FALKAI, P., BOGERTS, B., SCHNEIDER, T. I., GREVE, B., PFEIFFER, U., PILZ, K., GONSIORZCYK, C., MAJTENYI, C. & OVARY, I. (1995). Disturbed planum temporale asymmetry in schizophrenia. A quantitative post-mortem study. Schizophrenia Research, 14, 161-176.
31. FARAONE, S. V., CHEN, W. J., GOLDSTEIN, J. M. & TSUANG, M. T. (1994). Gender differences in the age at onset of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 625-629.
32. FLAUM, M., SWAYZE, V. W., O'LEARY, D. S., YUH, W. T. C., EHRHARDT, J. C., ARNDT, S. V. & ANDREASEN, N. C. (1995). Effects of diagnosis, laterality, and gender on brain morphology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 704-714.
33. FLOR-HENRY, P. (1983). The influence of gender on psychopathology. Animal experiments. In: P. FLOR-HENRY (Ed.), Cerebral basis of psychopathology (pp. 97-116). Boston: John Wright, PSG Inc.
34. FOERSTER, A., LEWIS, S. W., OWEN, M. J. & MURRAY, R. M. (1991). Pre-morbid adjustment and personality in psychosis: effects of sex and diagnosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 171-176.
35. FREEMAN, H. I. & ALPORT, M. (1987). Prevalence of schizophrenia in an urban population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 603-611.
36. GATTAZ, W. F., WAGNER, F., VOGEL, P., RIECHER-ROSSLER, A. & SODDU, G. (1994). Influence of the menstrual cycle phase on the therapeutic response in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 36, 137-139.
37. GESCHWIND, N. & GALABURDA, A. M. (1987). Cerebral lateralization, biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
38. GITTELMAN-KLEIN, R. & KLEIN, D. F. (1969). Pre-morbid asocial adjustment and prognosis in schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 7, 35-53.
39. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1988). Gender differences in the course of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 684-689.
40. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1993). Impact of sampling biases in explaining discrepancies in studies on gender and schizophrenia: a reply. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 6-14.
41. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1995a). The impact of gender on understanding the epidemiology of schizophrenia. In: M. V. SEEMAN (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
42. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1995b). Gender and the familial transmission of schizophrenia. In: M. V. SEEMAN (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
43. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. (1996). Sex and brain abnormalities in schizophrenia: fact or fiction? Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 110-115.
44. GOLDSTEIN, J. M. & LINK, B. G. (1988). Gender and the expression of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 22,141-155.
45. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., FARAONE, S. V., CHEN, W. J., TOLOMICZENCKO, G. & TSUANG, M. T. (1990b). Sex differences in the familial transmission of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 819-826.
46. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., FARAONE, S. V., CHEN, W. J. & TSUANG, M. T. (1992). Gender and the familial transmission of schizophrenia: disentangling confounding factors. Schizophrenia Research 7, 135-140.
47. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., FARAONE, S., CHEN, W. & TSUANG, M. (1995). Genetic heterogeneity may in part explain sex differences in the familial risk for schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 808-813.
48. GOLDSTEIN, M. J., RODNICK, E. H., EVANS, J. R., MAY, P. R. A. & STEINBERG, M. R. (1978). Drug and family therapy in the aftercare of acute schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 31, 1169-1177.
49. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., SANTANGELO, S. L., SIMPSON, J. C. & TSUANG, M. T. (1990a). The role of gender in identifying subtypes of schizophrenia: a latent class analytic approach. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 263-275.
50. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., SEIDMAN, L. J., SANTANGELO, S., KNAPP, P. & TSUANG, M. T. (1994). Are schizophrenic men at higher risk for developmental deficits than schizophrenic women? Implications for adult neuropsychological functions. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 28(6), 483-489.
51. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., TSUANG, M. T. & FARAONE, S. V. (1989). Gender and schizophrenia, Implications for understanding the nature of the disorder. Psychiatric Research, 28, 243-253.
52. GOLDSTEIN, J. M., SEIDMAN, L. J., GOODMAN, J. M., MAKRIS, N., KENNEDY, D., HOGE, E., CAVINESS, V., FARAONE, S. V. & TSUANG, M. T. (1997). Sex differences in structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia: frontal versus posterior brain regions. Schizophrenia Research, 24, 146.
53. GOTTESMAN, I. I. & SHIELDS, J. (1982). The epigenetic puzzle. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
54. GUR, R. E. & GUR, R. C. (1990). Gender differences in regional cerebral blood flow. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 247-254.
55. GUR, R. C., MOZLEY, L. H., MOZLEY, P. D. et al. (1995). Sex differences in regional cerebral metabolism during a resting state. Science, 267, 528-531.
56. GUR, R. E., MOZLEY, P. D., RESNICK, S. M., SHTASEL, D., KOHN, M., ZIMMERMAN, R., HARMAN, G., ATLAS, S., GROSSMAN, R., ERWIN, R. & GUR, R. C. (1991). Magnetic resonance imaging in schizophrenia. I. Volumetric analysis of brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 407-412.
57. HAAS, G. L., GLICK, I. D., CLARKIN, J. F. et al. (1988). Inpatient family intervention: a randomized clinical trial. II: Results at hospital discharge. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 217-224.
58. HAAS, G. L, GLICK, I. D., CLARKIN, J. F., SPENCER, J. H. & LEWIS, A. B. (1990). Gender and schizophrenia outcome: a clinical trial of an inpatient family intervention. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 277-292.
59. HAFNER, H., BEHRENS, S., DE VRY, J. & GATTAZ, W. F. (1991). An animal model for the effects of estradiol on dopamine-mediated behavior: implications for. Psychiatry Research, 38, 125-134.
60. HAFNER, H., RIECHER, A., MAURER, K. et al. (1989). How does gender influence age at first hospitalization for schizophrenia? A transnational case register study. Psychological Medicine, 19, 903-918.
61. HALLDIN, J. (1984). Prevalence of mental disorder in an urban population in central Sweden. Ada Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 69, 503-518.
62. HALLONQUIST, J., SEEMAN, M. V., LANG, M. & RECTOR, N. A. (1993). Variation in symptom severity over the menstrual cycle of schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 33, 207-209.
63. HAMBRECHT, M., MAURER, K., SARTORIUS, N. & HAFNER, H. (1992). Transnational stability of gender differences in schizophrenia? An analysis based on the WHO study on determinants of outcome of severe mental disorders. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242, 6-12.
64. HARRIS, M. J., JESTE, D. V., KRULL, A. et al. (1991). Deficit syndrome in older schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Research, 39, 285-292.
65. HAUSER, P., DAUPHINAIS, I. D., BERRETTINI, W., DELISI, L. E., GELERNTER, J. & POST, R. M. (1989). Corpus callosum dimensions measured by magnetic resonance imaging in bipolar affective disorder and schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 26, 659-668.
66. HOFF, A. L., RIORDAN, H., O'DONNELL, D., STRITZKE, P., NEALE, C., BOCCIO, A., ANAND, A. K. & DELISI, L. E. (1992). Anomalous lateral sulcus asymmetry and cognitive function in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18, 257-272.
67. IACONO, W. G. & BEISER, M. (1992). Are males more likely than females to develop schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1070-1074.
68. JERNIGAN, T. L., TRAUNER, D. A., HESSELINK, J. R. & TALLAL, P. A. (1991). Maturation of human cerebrum observed in vivo during adolescence. Brain, 114, 2037-2949.
69. JOHN, R., MEDNICK, S. A. & SCHULSINGER, F. (1982). Teacher reports as predictors of schizophrenia and borderline schizophrenia: a Bayesian decision analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 43, 383-388.
70. KAYE, J. A., DECARLI, C., LUXENBERG, J. S. & RAPPOPORT, S. I. (1992). The significance of age-related enlargement of the cerebral ventricles in healthy men and women measured by quantiative computer X-ray tomography. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 40, 225-231.
71. KENDLER, K. K. & WALSH, D. (1995). Gender and schizophrenia: results of an epidemiological-based family study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 184-192.
72. KENDLER, K. S., GRUENBERG, A. M. & TSUANG, M. T. (1985). Psychiatric illness in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia and surgical control patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 770-779.
73. KRAEPELIN, E. (1893). Dementia praecox and paraphrenia (translated by R. M. Barclay). Facsimile 1919 edition. New York: R. Kreiger Publishing Co.
74. KULKAMI, J., DE CASTELLA, A., SMITH, D., TAFFE, J., KEKS, N. & COPOLOV, D. (1996). A clinical trial of the effects of estrogen in acutely psychotic women. Schizophrenia Research, 20, 247-252.
75. LEWINE, R. R. J. (1981). Sex differences in schizophrenia. Timing or subtypes? Psychology Bulletin, 90(3), 432-444.
76. LEWINE, R. R. J. (1988). Gender and schizophrenia. In: M. T. TSUANG & J. C. SIMPSON (Eds), Handbook of Schizophrenia, volume 3 (pp. 379-397). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
77. LEWINE, R. R. J. & SEEMAN, M. V. (1995). Gender, brain and schizophrenia: anatomy of differences/differences of anatomy. In: M. V. SEEMAN (Ed.), Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
78. LEWINE, R. R. J., BURBACK, D. & MELTZER, H. Y. (1984). Effect of diagnostic criteria on the ratio of male to female schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 84-87.
79. LEWINE, R. R. J., GULLEY, L. R., RISCH, S. C., JEWART, R. & HOUPT, J. L. (1990). Sexual dimorphism, brain morphology, and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 195-203.
80. MACHIYAMA, Y., WATANABE, Y. & MACHIYAMA, R. (1987). Neuroanatomical studies of the corpus callosum in schizophrenia: evidence of aberrant interhemispheric fiber connection. In: R. TAKAHASHI, P. FLOR-HENRY, J. GRUZELIER & S. NIWA (Eds), Cerebral dynamics, laterality, and psychopathology (pp. 411-412). New York: Elsevier Press.
81. MACLUSKY, N. J., CLARK, A. S., NAFTOLIN, F. & GOLDMAN-RAKIC, P. S. (1987). Estrogen formation in the mammalian brain: possible role of aromatase in sexual differentiation of the hippocampus and neocortex. Steroids, 50, 4-6.
82. MARCUS, J., HANS, S. L., NAGLER, S., AUERBACH, J. G., MIRSKY, J. & AUBREY, A. (1987). Review of the NIMH Israeli Kibbutz-City study and the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(3), 425-438.
83. MARNEROS, A. (1984). Frequency of occurrence of Schneider's first rank symptoms in schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 234, 78-82.
84. MCGLASHAN, T. H. & BARDENSTEIN, K. K. (1990). Gender differences in affective, schizoaffective, and schizophrenic disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 319-329.
85. MEDNICK, S. A., SCHULSINGER, F., TEASDALE, T. W., SCHULSINGER, H., VENABLES, P. H. & ROCK, D. R. (1978). Schizophrenia in high-risk children: sex differences in predisposing factors. In: G. SERBAN (Ed.), Cognitive Defects in the development of mental illness. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publisher.
86. MORRIS, A. G., GATTONDE, E., MCKENNA, P. J., MELLON, J. D. & HUNT, D. M. (1995). CAG repeat expansions and schizophrenia: associated with disease in females and with early age at onset. Human Molecular Genetics, 4(10), 1957-1961.
87. MUNK-JORGENSEN, P. (1986). Schizophrenia in Denmark. Incidence and utilization of psychiatric institutions. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 73, 172-180.
88. MURRAY, R. M. (1994). Neurodevelopmental schizophrenia: the rediscovery of dementia praecox. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 6-12.
89. MURRAY, R. M., O'CALLAGHAN, E., CASTLE, D. J. & LEWIS, S. W. (1992). A neurodevelopmental approach to the classification of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18(2), 319-332.
90. NAFTOLIN, F., GARCIA-SEGURA, L. M. & KEEFE, D. (1990). Estrogen effects on the synaptology and neural membranes of the rat hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Biological Reproduction, 42, 21-28.
91. NASRALLAH, H. A., SCHWARTZKOPF, S. B., OLSON, S. C. & COFFMAN, J. A. (1990). Gender differences in schizophrenia on MRI brain scans. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 205-210.
92. ORBELL, S., TREW, K. & MCWHIRTER, L. (1990). Mental illness in Northern Ireland. A comparison with Scotland and England. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25, 165-169.
93. PEARLSON, G. D. & PULVER, A. E. (1994). Sex, schizophrenia and the cerebral cortex. In: E. J. ANCILL, S. HOLLIDAY & J. HIGENBOTTAM (Eds), Schizophrenia: exploring the spectrum of psychosis. Chicester: John Wiley & Sons.
94. FINALS, D. A., MALHOTRA, A. K., MISSAR, C. D., PICKAR, D. & BREIER, A. (1996). Lack of gender differences in neuroleptic response in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 22, 215-222.
95. PULVER, A. E. & LIANG, K. Y. (1991). Estimating effects of proband characteristics on familial risk. II. The association between age at onset and familial risk in the Maryland schizophrenia sample. Genetic Epidemiology, 8, 339-350.
96. PULVER, A. E., BROWN, C. H., WOLYNIEC, P. et al. (1990). Schizophrenia: age at onset, gender, and familial risk. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82, 344-351.
97. RAINE, A. (1992). Sex differences in schizotypal personality in a nonclinical population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(2), 361-364.
98. RAINE, A., HARRISON, G. N., REYNOLDS, G. P., SHEARD, C., COOPER, J. E. & MEDLEY, I. (1990). Structural and functional characteristics of the corpus callosum in schizophrenics, psychiatric controls, and normal controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 1060-1064.
99. RAYMOND, V., BEAULJEU, M., LABRIE, F. & BOISSIER, J. (1978). Potent antidopaminergic activity of estradiol at the pituitary level on prolactin release. Science, 200.
100. RECTOR, N. A. & SEEMAN, M. V. (1992). Auditory hallucinations in women and men. Schizophrenia Research, 7, 233-236.
101. REITE, M., CULLUM, C. M., STOCKER, J., TEALE, P. & KOZORA, E. (1993). Neuropsychological test performance and MEG-based brain lateralization: sex differences. British Research Bulletin, 32, 325-328.
102. REITE, M., TEALE, P., GOLDSTEIN, L., WHALEN, J. & LINNVILLE, S. (1989). Late auditory magnetic sources may differ in the left hemisphere of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 565-572.
103. RIECHER-ROSSLER, A., HAFNER, H., STUMBAUM, M., MAURER, K. & SHMIDT, R. (1994). Can estradiol modulate schizophrenic symptomatology? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 203-113.
104. RING, N., TANTAM, D., MONTAGUE, L. et al. (1991). Gender differences in the incidence of definite schizophrenia and atypical psychosis - focus on negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 84, 489-496.
105. ROSSI, A., STRATTA, P., MATTEI, P., CUPILLARI, M., COZZAO, A., GALLUCCI, M. & CASACCHIA, M. (1992). Planum temporale in schizophrenia: a magnetic resonance study. Schizophrenia Research, 7, 19-22.
106. SALOKANGAS, R. K. R. (1983). Prognostic implications of the sex of schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 145-151.
107. SALOKANGAS, R. K. R. (1995). Gender and the use of neuroleptics in schizophrenia - further testing of the estrogen hypothesis. Schizophrenia Research, 16, 7-16.
108. SARTORIUS, N., JABLENSKY, A., KORTEN, A., ERNBERG, G., ANKER, M., COOPER, J. E. & DAY, R. (1986). Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychological Medicine, 16, 909-928.
109. SCHLAEPFER, T. E., HARRIS, G. J., TIEN, A. Y. PENG, L. W., LEE, S. & FEDERMAN, E. B. et al. (1994). Decreased regional cortical gray matter volume in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 842-848.
110. SCHLAEPFER, T. E., HARRIS, G. J., TIEN, A. Y., PENG, L., LEE, S. & PEARLSON, G. D. (1995). Structural differences in the cerebral cortex of healthy female and male subjects: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 61, 129-135.
111. SCOTTISH SCHIZOPHRENIA RESEARCH GROUP (1992). The Scottish first episode schizophrenia study. VIII. Five-year follow-up: clinical and psychosocial findings. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 496-500.
112. SEEMAN, M. V. (1982). Gender differences in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 107-111.
113. SEEMAN, M. V. (1983). Interaction of sex, age, and neuroleptic dose. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 24, 125-128.
114. SEEMAN, M. V. (1995). Gender differences in treatment response in schizophrenia. In: M. V. SEEMAN (Ed.), Gender and Psychopathology. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.
115. SEEMAN, M. V. & LANG, M. (1990). The role of estrogens in schizophrenia gender differences. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 185-194.
116. SHAYWITZ, B. A., SHAYWITZ, S. E., PUGH, K. R., CONSTABLE, R. T., SKUDIARSKI, P., FULBRIGHT, R. K., BRONEN, R. A., FLETCHER, J. M., SHANKWALKER, D. P., KATZ, L. & GORE, J. C. (1995). Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Nature, 373, 607-609.
117. SHIMIZU, A., MASSAYOSHI, K., YAMAGUCHI, N. et al. (1987). Morbidity risk of schizophrenia to parents and siblings of schizophrenic patients. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry Neurolology, 41, 65-70.
118. SHTASEL, D. L., GUR, R. E., GALLACHER, F., HEIMBERG, C. & GUR, R. C. (1992). Gender differences in the clinical expression of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 7, 225-231.
119. SZYMANSKI, S., LIEBERMAN, J., POLLACK, S., KANE, J. M., SAFFERMAN, A., MUNNE, R., UMBRICHT, D., WOERNER, M., MASIAR, S. & KRONIG, M. (1996). Gender differences in neuroleptic non responsive clozapine-treated schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 39, 249-254.
120. TEST, M. A., BURKE, S. S. & WALUSCH, L. S. (1990). Gender differences of young adults with schizophrenic disorders in community care. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16(2), 331-344.
121. TIEN, A. Y. (1991). Distribution of hallucinations in the population. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 26, 287-292.
122. TSUANG, M. T. & WINOKUR, G. (1975). The Iowa-500: field work in a 35-year follow-up of depression, mania, and schizophrenia. Canadian Psychological Association, 20, 359-365.
123. TSUANG, M. T., FOWLER, R. C., CADORET, R. J. & MONNELLY, E. (1974). Schizophrenia among first-degree relatives of paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 15(4), 295-302.
124. WALKER, E. F. & LEWINE, R. R. J. (1993). Sampling biases in studies of gender and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 1-7.
125. WEINBERGER, D. R. (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 660-669.
126. WITELSON, S. F. (1989). Hand and sex differences in the isthmus and genu ofthe human corpus callosum. A postmortem morphological study. Brain, 112, 799-835.
127. WITELSON, S. F., GLEZER, I. I. & KIGAR, D. L. (1995). Women have greater density of neurons in posterior temporal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 3418-3428.
128. WOLYNIEC, P. S., PULVER, A. E., MCGRATH, J. A. et al. (1992). Schizophrenia: gender and familial risk. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 26, 17-27.
129. YOSHII, F., BARKER, W. W., CHANG, J. Y., LOEWENSTEIN, D., APICELLA, A., SMITH, D. et al. (1988). Sensitivity of cerebral glucose metabolism to age, gender, brain volume, brain atrophy, and cerebrovascular risk factors. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 8, 654-661.
130. YOUSEFF, H. A., KINSELLA, A. & WADDINGTON, J. L. (1991). Evidence for geographical variations in the prevalence of schizophrenia in rural Ireland. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 254-258.