Warren hastings and British sovereign authority in Bengal, 1774-80

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 59-81

  Sen, Neil ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030676209     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539708582993     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. 1. C.C. O'Brien, The Great Melody (1992). P.J. Marshall, The Impeachment of Warren Hastings (Oxford, 1965), is, of course, a dispassionate, and the definitive, account of the impeachment itself.
2. 1. C.C. O'Brien, The Great Melody (1992). P.J. Marshall, The Impeachment of Warren Hastings (Oxford, 1965), is, of course, a dispassionate, and the definitive, account of the impeachment itself.
3. 2. G.R. Gleig (ed.), Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable Warren Hastings, 3 vols. (1841); Keith Feiling, Warren Hastings (1954). Gleig does, however, reproduce many interesting items of correspondence.
4. 2. G.R. Gleig (ed.), Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honourable Warren Hastings, 3 vols. (1841); Keith Feiling, Warren Hastings (1954). Gleig does, however, reproduce many interesting items of correspondence.
5. 3. P.J. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron', in Whiteman, Bromley and Dickson (eds.), Statesmen, Scholars, and Merchants: Essays in Eighteenth Century History presented to Dame Lucy Sutherland (Oxford, 1973); E.M. Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal (Oxford, 1918); P.E. Roberts, 'The Early Reforms of Warren Hastings in Bengal' and 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues', in R.H. Dodwell (ed.), The Cambridge History of India, V (Cambridge, 1929).
6. 3. P.J. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron', in Whiteman, Bromley and Dickson (eds.), Statesmen, Scholars, and Merchants: Essays in Eighteenth Century History presented to Dame Lucy Sutherland (Oxford, 1973); E.M. Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal (Oxford, 1918); P.E. Roberts, 'The Early Reforms of Warren Hastings in Bengal' and 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues', in R.H. Dodwell (ed.), The Cambridge History of India, V (Cambridge, 1929).
7. 3. P.J. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron', in Whiteman, Bromley and Dickson (eds.), Statesmen, Scholars, and Merchants: Essays in Eighteenth Century History presented to Dame Lucy Sutherland (Oxford, 1973); E.M. Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal (Oxford, 1918); P.E. Roberts, 'The Early Reforms of Warren Hastings in Bengal' and 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues', in R.H. Dodwell (ed.), The Cambridge History of India, V (Cambridge, 1929).
8. 4. Lord Macaulay, 'Warren Hastings', in Critical and Historical Essays (1874), 549; Philip Mason (published under pseudonym 'Philip Woodruff'), The Men Who Ruled India, I, The Founders (1953), 132.
9. 4. Lord Macaulay, 'Warren Hastings', in Critical and Historical Essays (1874), 549; Philip Mason (published under pseudonym 'Philip Woodruff'), The Men Who Ruled India, I, The Founders (1953), 132.
10. 5. See Marshall, The Impeachment, 183.
11. 6. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron'.
12. 7. 30 March 1774, The Letters of Samuel Johnson, II, B. Redford (ed.) (Oxford, 1994), 136.
13. 8. 'Letter to Nathaniel Smith', 4 Oct. 1784, from The Bhagavat-Gita, reproduced in P.J. Marshall (ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism (Cambridge, 1975), 189.
14. 8. 'Letter to Nathaniel Smith', 4 Oct. 1784, from The Bhagavat-Gita, reproduced in P.J. Marshall (ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism (Cambridge, 1975), 189.
15. 9. P.J. Marshall, 'Oriental Studies', in L.S Sutherland and L.G. Mitchell (eds.), The History of the University of Oxford, V (Oxford, 1986), 561-563.
16. 10. Hastings to Scott, 9 Dec. 1784, Hastings Papers, British Library, Add. MS. 29129, 270-5.
17. 11. British Discovery of Hinduism, 189, and Gleig, I, 404, and II, 21.
18. 12. 'A Letter of Warren Hastings on the Civil Service of the East India Company', W.H. Hutton (ed.), English Historical Review, XLIV (1929), 634-5.
19. 13. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron', 256.
20. 14. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 149-50. The grant of the Diwani by the Mogul Emperor in Aug. 1765 gave the East India Company the right to collect the territorial and customs revenues in Bengal, Behar and Orissa. The Emperor remained de jure sovereign and the Nawab of Bengal remained in place.
21. 15. Marshall, The Impeachment, 187.
22. 16. Nor is the referencing reliable. E.M. Monckton Jones offers no reference at all for her comment that Hastings believed that the English crown should assume the sovereignty of Bengal in Warren Hastings in Bengal, 121, while B.N. Pandey, in his work on The Introduction of English Law into India: The Career of Elijah Impey in Bengal (Bombay 1967), 125-6, supports his comments on Hastings' position on this subject by erroneously referring to a volume corresponding to an Italian manuscript in the British Library instead of the Hastings papers. Dodwell does not mention the two plans for 'Better Government' and the 'Better Administration of Justice in Bengal'; Roberts alludes to them in his 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues' without suggesting he has pursued the documents. See notes 58 and 59.
23. 16. Nor is the referencing reliable. E.M. Monckton Jones offers no reference at all for her comment that Hastings believed that the English crown should assume the sovereignty of Bengal in Warren Hastings in Bengal, 121, while B.N. Pandey, in his work on The Introduction of English Law into India: The Career of Elijah Impey in Bengal (Bombay 1967), 125-6, supports his comments on Hastings' position on this subject by erroneously referring to a volume corresponding to an Italian manuscript in the British Library instead of the Hastings papers. Dodwell does not mention the two plans for 'Better Government' and the 'Better Administration of Justice in Bengal'; Roberts alludes to them in his 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues' without suggesting he has pursued the documents. See notes 58 and 59.
24. 17. Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal, 145; P.E. Roberts, 'The Early Reforms of Warren Hastings', 207. The 'Dual System' meant that the Nawab's officials had remained in their positions after 1765. Hastings was to ensure that the revenues would henceforth be collected through the agency of its own servants; Roberts rightly notes that the Company was becoming responsible for the entire civil administration.
25. 17. Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal, 145; P.E. Roberts, 'The Early Reforms of Warren Hastings', 207. The 'Dual System' meant that the Nawab's officials had remained in their positions after 1765. Hastings was to ensure that the revenues would henceforth be collected through the agency of its own servants; Roberts rightly notes that the Company was becoming responsible for the entire civil administration.
26. 18. Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, II, 535; Hastings to Elliot. 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 148 .
27. 18. Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, II, 535; Hastings to Elliot. 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 148 .
28. 19. Hastings to Colebrooke, 7 March 1773, Gleig, I, 289-90.
29. 20. Hastings to Court of Directors, 11 Nov. 1773, 'Fifth Report of the Committee of Secrecy, Appointed to Enquire into the Causes of the War in the Carnatic', 1782, re-issued in Reports of the Committees of the House of Commons, 12 vols., 1803-6, VIII, 816; and Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, I, 543, where he also cites the previous letter.
30. 20. Hastings to Court of Directors, 11 Nov. 1773, 'Fifth Report of the Committee of Secrecy, Appointed to Enquire into the Causes of the War in the Carnatic', 1782, re-issued in Reports of the Committees of the House of Commons, 12 vols., 1803-6, VIII, 816; and Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, I, 543, where he also cites the previous letter.
31. 20. Hastings to Court of Directors, 11 Nov. 1773, 'Fifth Report of the Committee of Secrecy, Appointed to Enquire into the Causes of the War in the Carnatic', 1782, re-issued in Reports of the Committees of the House of Commons, 12 vols., 1803-6, VIII, 816; and Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, I, 543, where he also cites the previous letter.
32. 21. Journals of the House of Commons, XLI, 1786, 670-1.
33. 22. Hastings to Colebrooke, 7 March 1773, Gleig, I, 290. His formulated proposals to the Court of Directors in relation to the Governor-General proved, however, to be modest: see below.
34. 23. B.B. Misra, The Central Administration of the East India Company, 1773-1834 (Manchester, 1959), 17-18.
35. 24. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 145-6.
36. 25. Hastings to Court of Directors, 11 Nov. 1773, Reports, VIII, 816.
37. 26. Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, I, 539. (The italics are those of the present writer).
38. 27. Francis to Lord North, 14 Feb. 1777. Quoted in R. Guha, A Rule of Property for Bengal (Paris, 1963), 147. Francis was serving on the Supreme Council at the time.
39. 28. 'Sir Philip Francis's Minutes', ibid., 95.
40. 29. P.J. Marshall (ed.), Burke, Writings and Speeches, Vol V-India: Madras and Bengal, 1774-1785 (Oxford, 1981), 386-7.
41. 30. Ibid., VI, The Launching of the Hastings Impeachment, 1786-1788 (Oxford 1991), 296-7.
42. 31. Ibid., V, 386-7.
43. 32. Hastings to Lord North, Gleig, I, 535; and to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig II, 147.
44. 32. Hastings to Lord North, Gleig, I, 535; and to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig II, 147.
45. 33. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 148.
46. 34. Commons Journals, XLI, 670.
47. 35. Hastings to Court of Directors, 11 Nov. 1773, Reports, VIII, 816.
48. 36. Hastings to Lord North, 4 Dec. 1774, Gleig, I, 471-6.
49. 37. 'Ninth Report of the Select Committee Appointed to take into Consideration the State of the Administration of Justice in the Provinces of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa', 25 June 1783, reprinted in Burke, Writings and Speeches, V, see especially 221-69. See also the editor's remarks on 195-6 and 23.
50. 38. President of the Council to Court of Directors, 15 Oct. 1773, Reports, VI, 268.
51. 39. Hastings to Colonel Macleane, 14 July 1776, Gleig, II, 46.
52. 40. Ibid.
53. 41. Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, I, 534-44.
54. 42. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (first published 1776), Campbell, Skinner and Todd, (eds.) (Oxford, 1976), II, 637-41.
55. 43. C.A. Bayly, 'The British Military Fiscal State and Indigenous Resistance: India 1750-1820', in L. Stone, An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689-1815 (1994), 328.
56. 44. H.V. Bowen, 'A Question of Sovereignty? The Bengal Land Revenue Issue, 1765-67' JICH, XVI, (1988), 171.
57. 45. H.V. Bowen, Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics, 1757-1773 (Cambridge,1991), 7.
58. 46. Burke, Writings and Speeches, V, 166.
59. 47. 'Sir Phillip Francis's Minutes', quoted in Guha, op. cit., 143-4.
60. 48. Quoted in R.H. Dodwell, 'The Development of Sovereignty in British India', Cambridge History, 598.
61. 49. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 148.
62. 50. Quoted in Dodwell, op. cit., 597.
63. 51. Add. MS. 29207, 72.
64. 52. Hastings to Purling, March 22, 1772, reprinted in Monckton Jones, op. cit., 147.
65. 53.. Dodwell, op. cit., 597.
66. 54. Francis to Lord North, 24 Feb. 1775. Francis Papers, India Office Library, MSS Eur. 13/A, 138-9 and 182.
67. 55. Hastings to Sulivan, 21 March 1776, Gleig, II, 30; G.W. Forrest, Selections from the State Papers of the Governors-General of India: Warren Hastings. II (Oxford, 1890), 301.
68. 55. Hastings to Sulivan, 21 March 1776, Gleig, II, 30; G.W. Forrest, Selections from the State Papers of the Governors-General of India: Warren Hastings. II (Oxford, 1890), 301.
69. 56. J. Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of Bengal Criminal Law, 1769-1817 (Wiesbaden, 1983), 32; P.J. Marshall, Bengal: The British Bridgehead, The New Cambridge History of India, II:2 (Cambridge, 1987), 97-8.
70. 56. J. Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of Bengal Criminal Law, 1769-1817 (Wiesbaden, 1983), 32; P.J. Marshall, Bengal: The British Bridgehead, The New Cambridge History of India, II:2 (Cambridge, 1987), 97-8.
71. 57. Hastings to Sulivan, 21 March 1776, Gleig, II, 30-7.
72. 58. 'A Bill for the Better Government of the Kingdom or Provinces and Countries under the Governor-General and Council of Fort William in Bengal and for the Administration of Justice therein' (undated copy), Add. MS. 29207, 72. The suggestion in the British Library that the volume might date from 1781 is misleading: there is another copy in the India Office Library, dated 31 March 1776: H/124, 97-410. Pandey, op. cit., 125-6, summarizes several of the most important features of this document, but, as his work focuses on Impey, only cursorily considers Hastings', interest in this paper, and does not indicate he is aware of the very similar Hastings-Barwell plan.
73. 59. 'A Plan for the Better Administration of Justice in the Provinces of Bengal,' 18 Jan. 1776, reprinted in Forrest, op. cit., II, 300, and also to be found in India Office Library, H/122, 489-515. This was a plan which Hastings and Thomas Barwell, an ally on the Supreme Council, wrote as a result of a misunderstanding with the Chief Justice, Impey, who had initially felt himself ill-qualified to write the above 'Bill'; but the central principles were agreed and only expressed differently: see Hastings to MacLeane, 14 July 1776, Gleig, II, 50. Hastings in fact preferred the more detailed scheme drafted by his friend: letter to Sulivan, Gleig, II, 35.
74. 59. 'A Plan for the Better Administration of Justice in the Provinces of Bengal,' 18 Jan. 1776, reprinted in Forrest, op. cit., II, 300, and also to be found in India Office Library, H/122, 489-515. This was a plan which Hastings and Thomas Barwell, an ally on the Supreme Council, wrote as a result of a misunderstanding with the Chief Justice, Impey, who had initially felt himself ill-qualified to write the above 'Bill'; but the central principles were agreed and only expressed differently: see Hastings to MacLeane, 14 July 1776, Gleig, II, 50. Hastings in fact preferred the more detailed scheme drafted by his friend: letter to Sulivan, Gleig, II, 35.
75. 59. 'A Plan for the Better Administration of Justice in the Provinces of Bengal,' 18 Jan. 1776, reprinted in Forrest, op. cit., II, 300, and also to be found in India Office Library, H/122, 489-515. This was a plan which Hastings and Thomas Barwell, an ally on the Supreme Council, wrote as a result of a misunderstanding with the Chief Justice, Impey, who had initially felt himself ill-qualified to write the above 'Bill'; but the central principles were agreed and only expressed differently: see Hastings to MacLeane, 14 July 1776, Gleig, II, 50. Hastings in fact preferred the more detailed scheme drafted by his friend: letter to Sulivan, Gleig, II, 35.
76. 60. Add. MS. 29027, 72.
77. 61. Cuba, op. cit., 145.
78. 62.. Hastings to Sulivan, Gleig, II, 30.
79. 63. Add. MS. 29207, 72, 88.
80. 64. On the Privy Council's role in the American colonies see P.D.G. Thomas, British Politics and the Stamp Act Crisis: The First Phase of the American Revolution, 1763-1767 (Oxford, 1975), Chapter 2.
81. 65. Hastings to Lord North, 26 Feb. 1775, Gleig, I, 508.
82. 66. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 145-6.
83. 67. Ibid., 137.
84. 68. Add. MS. 29207, 72; Forrest, op. cit., 300; Hastings to MacLeane, Gleig, II, 50.
85. 68. Add. MS. 29207, 72; Forrest, op. cit., 300; Hastings to MacLeane, Gleig, II, 50.
86. 68. Add. MS. 29207, 72; Forrest, op. cit., 300; Hastings to MacLeane, Gleig, II, 50.
87. 69. Hastings and Barwell to Court of Directors, 30 April 1776, Reports, IV, Appendix 13, 908. The italics are those of the present writer. This letter is in support of Impey's plan, but the Hastings-Barwell plan also stated plainly, 'let the power of the Supreme Court of Judicature....be extended to all parts of these Provinces without limitation...': Forrest, op. cit., 301.
88. 69. Hastings and Barwell to Court of Directors, 30 April 1776, Reports, IV, Appendix 13, 908. The italics are those of the present writer. This letter is in support of Impey's plan, but the Hastings-Barwell plan also stated plainly, 'let the power of the Supreme Court of Judicature....be extended to all parts of these Provinces without limitation...': Forrest, op. cit., 301.
89. 70. Add. MS. 29207, 77 and 75. Royal Sheriffs were also to be appointed 'in pursuance of His Majesty's Letters Patent' to whom Boards outside Calcutta were answerable for their decisions as to payments and fines: 78. For advice on indigenous law, Hindu and Muslim advisers, or canongoes, would be nominated: 81. Appeals to the King on civil cases would be allowed in this draft (99), but Hastings seems to have advised Impey that this would be impracticable: Impey to Governor-General, 28 March 1776, Reports, IV 909
90. 71. 20 Jan. 1776, Gleig, II, 16.
91. 72. Governor-General's Minute in Consultation, 29 Sept. 1780, Reports, III, 418.
92. 73. See the 'First Report', reprinted in Burke, Writings and Speeches, V.
93. 74. Roberts, 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues', 244. Hastings complained that the Court had ceased to function before the Chief Justice's arrival: see letter to Sulivan 21 March 1776, Gleig, II, 29; and on Impey's merits generally, see Pandey, op. cit.
94. 75. To Earl Spencer, 2 Dec. 1783, J. Cannon (ed.), Letters of Sir William Jones (Oxford, 1970) II, 623.
95. 76. Governor-General's Minute in Consultation, 29 Sept. 1780, Reports, III, 418.
96. 77. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 147.
97. 78. Add. MS. 29207, 87. The Hastings-Barwell plan follows the same formula: Forrest, op. cit., 303.
98. 79. Pandey, op. cit., 126.
99. 80. Add. MS.29207.88-89. Copies of the legislation would also be lodged at the Company's offices in London. See Forrest, op. cit., 303, for a similar provision in the Hastings-Barwell plan.
100. 81. Pandey, op. cit., 125-6.
101. 82. To Sir John Macpherson, 12 March 1786, Cannon, The Letters of Sir William Jones, II, 668.
102. 83. Add. MS. 29207, 86. Neither the Governor-General nor the Chief Justice had to be present to form a quorum, although in relation to criminal sentences they would have exclusive power. In a letter to Lord North he argued that an 'extraordinary degree of power' be given to the office of Governor-General, Gleig, II, 543.
103. 84. Chambers to Governor-General, 30 March 1776, Reports, IV, 910.
104. 85. This applied to all judges, whether in the provinces or in Calcutta: Add. MS. 29207, 90-1.
105. 86. Hastings to Sulivan, 21 March 1776, Gleig, II, 30.
106. 87. Hastings to Colebrooke, 26 March 1772, reprinted in Monckton Jones, op. cit., 148-50.
107. 88. Ibid., 262.
108. 89. Hastings to Colebrooke, ibid., 148-9.
109. 90. Add. MS. 29207, 72; Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, II, 543; Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal, 145-6.
110. 90. Add. MS. 29207, 72; Hastings to Lord North, 2 April 1775, Gleig, II, 543; Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Monckton Jones, Warren Hastings in Bengal, 145-6.
111. 91. Monckton Jones, op. cit., 288-90.
112. 92. Bowen, Revenue and Reform, 177-8.
113. 93. Marshall, Problems of Empire: Britain and India 1757-1813 (London, 1968), 31; Bowen, ibid., 10.
114. 93. Marshall, Problems of Empire: Britain and India 1757-1813 (London, 1968), 31; Bowen, ibid., 10.
115. 94. Bowen, ibid., 58.
116. 95. Burke, Writings and Speeches, V, 442.
117. 96. On the effects of the India Act, see Marshall, Problems of Empire, 46-50.
118. 97. P.E. Roberts, 'Warren Hastings and his Colleagues', 242.
119. 98. Fort William Consultations, 1 March 1763, 'Fourth Report of the Committee of Secrecy', April 1773, re-issued in Reports, VII, 485-6.
120. 99. 12 Oct. 1772, quoted in Dodwell, op. cit., 597.
121. 100. See Guha, op. cit., 6.
122. 101. He points to the letter to Elliot discussed above, 3. Guha, op. cit., 159.
123. 102. Hastings to Lord Mansfield, 21 March 1774, Gleig, I, 399
124. 103. 'An Appeal to the King in Council', Dec. 1821, reprinted in Appendix B, 10, of A.K. Sen's Raja Rammohan Roy (Calcutta, 1967).
125. 104. Letter to Pitt the Younger, 5 Feb. 1785, Letters of Sir William Jones, II, 664.
126. 105. Marshall, The Impeachment, 181.
127. 106. Marshall, The British Bridgehead, 31.
128. 107. Hastings to Mansfield, 21 March 1774, Gleig, I, 399-400; J.D.M. Derrett, Religion, State and Law (1968), 231-6; R. Rocher, op. cit., 48-53.
129. 107. Hastings to Mansfield, 21 March 1774, Gleig, I, 399-400; J.D.M. Derrett, Religion, State and Law (1968), 231-6; R. Rocher, op. cit., 48-53.
130. 107. Hastings to Mansfield, 21 March 1774, Gleig, I, 399-400; J.D.M. Derrett, Religion, State and Law (1968), 231-6; R. Rocher, op. cit., 48-53.
131. 108. Marshall, The Impeachment, 183: Halhed's line was that arbitrary power had been consistently displayed throughout the history of Asia. For his views and Orientalism generally, see R. Rocher, Orientalism, Poetry and the Millennium: The Checkered Life of Nathaniel Brassey Halhed (Delhi, 1983).
132. 108. Marshall, The Impeachment, 183: Halhed's line was that arbitrary power had been consistently displayed throughout the history of Asia. For his views and Orientalism generally, see R. Rocher, Orientalism, Poetry and the Millennium: The Checkered Life of Nathaniel Brassey Halhed (Delhi, 1983).
133. 109. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 146.
134. 110. Hastings to Lord North, 4 Dec. 1774, Gleig, I, 471.
135. 111. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 143.
136. 112. 'Regulations Proposed for the Government of Bengal', c.1772, Monckton Jones, op. cit., 113. Marshall, The British Bridgehead, 101.
137. 112. 'Regulations Proposed for the Government of Bengal', c.1772, Monckton Jones, op. cit., 113. Marshall, The British Bridgehead, 101.
138. 114. P. Lawson, The East India Company: A History (1993), 129.
139. 115. Monckton Jones, op. cit., 156-7 and 281.
140. 116. Misra, op. cit., 33.
141. 117. Lawson, East India Company, 129.
142. 118. Hastings to Elliot, 10 Feb. 1777, Gleig, II, 148.
143. 119. Marshall, 'Warren Hastings as Scholar and Patron', 256 and 261.
144. 120. P.J. Marshall, 'Empire and Authority in the Later Eighteenth Century', JICH, XV (1987), 118.
145. 121. Ibid. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (New Haven, 1992), 128-30.
146. 122. Burke, Writings and Speeches, V, 35, 277, and 457-8.
147. 123. C. Dewey, Anglo-Indian Altitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service (1993), 8.