Effects of Maternal Nutrition on Hatchability

Poultry Science

Volumn 76, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 134-143

  Wilson, H R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

Embryo; Hatchability; Nutrients

Indexed keywords

AVES; GALLIFORMES;

MINERAL; VITAMIN;

ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; ANIMAL FOOD; CHICK EMBRYO; CHICKEN; DIET; FEMALE; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; STANDARD;

ANIMAL NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; ANIMALS; CHICK EMBRYO; CHICKENS; DIET; FEMALE; MINERALS; VITAMINS;

EID: 0030638749     PISSN: 00325791     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ps/76.1.134     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Abdallah, A. G., R. H. Harms, H. R. Wilson, and O. El-Husseiny, 1994. Effect of removing trace minerals from the diet of hens laying eggs with heavy or light shell weight. Poultry Sci. 73: 295-301.
2. 3 metabolites on production parameters and hatchability of eggs. Poultry Sci. 58:858-863.
3. Almquist, H. J., and E.L.R. Stodstad, 1936. Factors influencing the incidence of dietary hemorrhagic disease in chicks. J. Nutr. 12:329-335.
4. Arnold, R. L., O. E. Olson, and C. W. Carlson, 1974. Tissue selenium content and serum tocopherols as influenced by dietary type, selenium and vitamin E. Poultry Sci. 53: 2185-2192.
5. Arrington, L. R., R. A. Santa Cruz, R. H. Harms, and H. R. Wilson, 1967. Effects of excess dietary iodine upon pullets and laying hens. J. Nutr. 92:325-330.
6. Atkinson, R. L., A. A. Swanson, J. R. Couch, and J. H. Quisenberry, 1963. Effects of vitamin A, vitamin E and ethoxyquin on the reproductive performance of turkeys. Poultry Sci. 42:1380-1386.
7. Attia, Y. A., W. H. Burke, K. A. Yamani, and L. S. Jensen, 1995. Daily energy allotments and performance of broiler breeders. 2. Females. Poultry Sci. 74:261-270.
8. 12 and pantothenic acid in breeder hen diets on hatchability, chick growth and livability. Poultry Sci. 36: 929-934.
9. Bearse, G. E., and M. W. Miller, 1937. The effect of varying levels of vitamin A in the hen ration on the vitamin A content of the egg yolk, on hatchability, and on chick livability. Poultry Sci. 16:39-43.
10. Beer, A. E., M. L. Scott, and M. C. Nesheim, 1963. The effects of graded levels of pantothenic acid on the breeding performance of White Leghorn pullets. Br. Poult. Sci. 4:243-253.
11. Bethke, R. M., P. R. Record, and D. C. Kennard, 1933. Relation of the vitamin G complex to hatchability and nutritive value of eggs. Poultry Sci. 12:332-333.
12. Bethke, R. M., P. R. Record, and D. C. Kennard, 1936. The relation of vitamin G to the hatchability of hens' eggs. J. Nutr. 12: 297-307.
13. Blamberg, D. L., U. B. Blackwood, W. C. Supplee, and G. F. Combs, 1960. Effect of zinc deficiency in hens on hatchability and embryonic development. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 104: 217-220.
14. Bradley, G. L., and T. F. Savage, 1995. The influences of preincubation storage duration and genotype on the hatchability of Medium White turkey eggs from hens fed a diet containing a yeast culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 51:141-152.
15. Brake, J., 1991. Research note: Lack of effect of a live yeast culture on broiler breeder and progeny performance. Poultry Sci. 70:1037-1039.
16. Briggs, G. M., A. C. Groschke, and R. J. Lillie, 1946. Effect of proteins low in tryptophane on growth of chickens and on laying hens receiving nicotinic acid-low rations. J. Nutr. 32: 659-675.
17. Caskey, C. D., and L. C. Norris, 1940. Micromelia in adult fowl caused by manganese deficiency during embryonic development. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 44:332-335.
18. Caskey, C. D., L. C. Norris, and G. F. Heuser, 1944. A chronic congenital ataxia in chicks due to manganese deficiency in the maternal diet. Poultry Sci. 23:516-520.
19. Carlson, C. W., W. Kohlmeyer, and A. L. Moxon, 1951. Arsenic fails to control selenium poisoning in turkeys. S. Dak. Farm Home Res. 3(1):20-22, 24.
20. Chen, F., S. L. Noll, and P. E. Waibel, 1994. Dietary biotin and turkey breeder performance. Poultry Sci. 73:682-686.
21. Christensen, V. L., and J. F. Ort, 1991. Iodine toxicity in Large White turkey breeder hens. Poultry Sci. 70:2402-2410.
22. Christensen, V. L., W. E. Donaldson, and J. F. Ort, 1991. The effect of dietary iodine on the hatchability of eggs from two commercial strains of turkeys. Poultry Sci. 70:2529-2537.
23. Couch, J. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem, and J. G. Halpin, 1947. Biotin deficiency in the newly hatched chick. Poultry Sci. 26:536. (Abstr.)
24. Couch, J. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem, and J. G. Halpin, 1948. Studies on the role of biotin in embryonic development of the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 27:657. (Abstr.)
25. Couch, J. R., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem, and J. G. Halpin, 1949. Studies on function of biotin in the domestic fowl. Arch. Biochem. 21:77-86.
26. Cravens, W. W., and E. E. Snell, 1949a. Desoxypyridoxine and development of the chick embryo. Fed. Proc. 8:380-381.
27. 6 on development of the chick embryo. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 71:73-76.
28. Cravens, W. W., W. H. McGibbon, and E. E. Sebesta, 1944. Effect of biotin deficiency on embryonic development in the domestic fowl. Anat. Rec. 90:55-64.
29. 6 on egg production and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 22:94-95.
30. Cravens, W. W., E. E. Sebesta, J. G. Halpin, and E. B. Hart, 1946. Studies on the pyridoxine requirements of laying and breeding hens. Poultry Sci. 25:80-82.
31. 6 requirement of chicks. Poultry Sci. 52: 1247-1252.
32. Dawson, E., T. M. Ferguson, C. W. Deyoe, and J. R. Couch, 1962. Pantothenic acid deficient turkey embryos. Poultry Sci. 41: 1639. (Abstr.)
33. Dersch, H., and M. H. Zile, 1993. Induction of normal cardiovascular development in the vitamin A-deprived quail embryo by natural retinoids. Dev. Biol. 160:424-433.
34. Fattori, T. R., H. R. Wilson, R. H. Harms, and R. D. Miles, 1991. Response of broiler breeder females to feed restriction below recommended levels. 1. Growth and reproductive performance. Poultry Sci. 70:26-36.
35. 12 deficient chick embryos. Arch. Pathol. 60:393-400.
36. Ferguson, T. M., C. E. Sewell, Jr., and R. L. Atkinson, 1974. Phosphorus levels in the turkey breeder diet. Poultry Sci. 53: 1627-1629.
37. Franke, K. W., and W. C. Tully, 1936. A new toxicant occurring naturally in certain samples of plant foodstuffs. VII. Low hatchability due to deformities in chicks produced from eggs obtained from chickens of known history. Poultry Sci. 15:316-318.
38. Fry, J. L., P. W. Waldroup, B. L. Damron, R. H. Harms, and H. R. Wilson, 1968. Relationship of dietary menadione sodium bisulfite complex (MSBC) and vitamin A to blood spot incidence and prothrombin time of laying hens. Poultry Sci. 47:630-634.
39. Fry, J. L., P. W. Waldroup, R. H. Harms, and H. R. Wilson, 1965. Relationship of dietary menadione sodium bisulfite complex (MSBC) to prothrombin time, blood spot incidence and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 44:1371. (Abstr.)
40. Gillis, M. B., G. F. Heuser, and L. C. Norris, 1947. The pantothenic acid requirement of hens for reproduction. Poultry Sci. 26: 540. (Abstr.)
41. Giroud, A., 1968. Nutrition of the embryo. Fed. Proc. 27:163-184.
42. Haq, A. U., C. A. Bailey, and A. D. Chinnah, 1995. Neonatal immune response and growth performance of chicks hatched from Single Comb White Leghorn breeders fed diets supplemented with β-carotene, canthaxanthin, or lutein. Poultry Sci. 74:844-851.
43. Haq, A. U., C. A. Bailey, and G. O. Okotie-Eboh, 1994. Neonatal immune response of chicks hatched from broiler breeders fed diets supplemented with β-carotene, canthaxanthin, lutein, vitamin E, or Vitamin E plus β-carotene. Poultry Sci. 73 (Suppl. 1):76. (Abstr.)
44. Harms, R. H., and H. R. Wilson, 1984. The chloride requirement of the broiler breeder hen. Poultry Sci. 63:835-837.
45. Harms, R. H., C. B. Ammerman, and P. W. Waldroup, 1964. The effect of supplemental phosphorus in the breeder diet upon hatchability of eggs and bone composition of chicks. Poultry Sci. 43:209-212.
46. Harms, R. H., S. M. Bootwalla, S. A. Woodward, H. R. Wilson, and G. A. Untawale, 1990. Some observations on the influence of vitamin D metabolites when added to the diet of commercial laying hens. Poultry Sci. 69:426-432.
47. Harms, R. H., R. E. Buresh, and H. R. Wilson, 1985. Sodium requirement of the turkey hen. Br. Poult. Sci. 26:217-220.
48. Harms, R. H., O. M. Junquiera, and H. R. Wilson, 1983. Chloride requirement of the turkey breeder hen. Poultry Sci. 62: 2442-2444.
49. Harms, R. H., R. A. Voitle, D. M. Janky, and H. R. Wilson, 1979a. The influence of biotin supplementation on performance of broiler breeder hens and footpad dermatitis in the progeny. Nutr. Rep. Int. 19:603-606.
50. Harms, R. H., R. A. Voitle, and H. R. Wilson, 1979b. Performance of broiler breeder pullets grown on various grower programs. Nutr. Rep. Int. 20:561-566.
51. Henry, H. L., and A. W. Norman, 1978. Vitamin D: two dihydroxylated metabolites are required for normal chicken egg hatchability. Science 201:835-837.
52. Hill, F. W., M. L. Scott, L. C. Norris, and G. F. Heuser, 1961. Reinvestigation of the vitamin A requirements of laying and breeding hens and their progeny. Poultry Sci. 40:1245-1254.
53. Hutt, F. B., 1961. Genetic variation in the utilization of riboflavin, thiamine, and other nutrients. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 91: 659-666.
54. Jensen, L. S., 1968. Selenium deficiency and impaired reproduction in Japanese quail. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 128: 970-972.
55. Jensen, L. S., and J. McGinnis, 1957. Effect of different diets and unidentified factor supplements on reproduction in chickens and early chick growth. Poultry Sci. 36:312-319.
56. Jiang, Z., G. Cherian, F. E. Robinson, and J. S. Sim, 1990. Effect of feeding cholesterol to laying hens and chicks on cholesterol metabolism in pre- and posthatch chicks. Poultry Sci. 69: 1694-1701.
57. Kidd, M. T., N. B. Anthony, L. A. Newberry, and S. R. Lee, 1993. Effect of supplemental zinc in either a corn-soybean or a milo and corn-soybean meal diet on the performance of young broiler breeders and their progeny. Poultry Sci. 72: 1492-1499.
58. Kienholz, E. W., D. E. Turk, M. L. Sunde, and W. G. Hoekstra, 1961. Effects of zinc deficiency in the diets of hens. J. Nutr. 75:211-221.
59. Kinder, L. L., N. B. Anthony, and C. R. Angel, 1994. Apparent selenium toxicity in emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), Poultry Sci. 73 (Suppl. 1)100. (Abstr.)
60. Kling, L. J., and J. H. Soares, Jr., 1980. Vitamin E deficiency in the Japanese quail. Poultry Sci. 59:2352-2354.
61. Landauer, W., 1967. The hatchability of chicken eggs as influenced by environment and heredity. Monograph 1 (Revised). Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, CT.
62. Lavelle, P. A., Q. P. Lloyd, C. V. Gay, and R. M. Leach, Jr., 1994. Vitamin K deficiency does not functionally impair skeletal metabolism of laying hens and their progeny. J. Nutr. 124: 371-377.
63. Lee, S. R., 1989. Effect of water iodophor and litter sodium borate treatments on hatchability of SCWL chicks. Poultry Sci. 68 (Suppl. 1):189. (Abstr.)
64. Leeson, S., and J. D. Summers, 1991. Commercial Poultry Nutrition. University Books, Guelph, ON, Canada.
65. Leeson, S., B. S. Reinhart, and J. D. Summers, 1979a. Response of White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red breeder hens to dietary deficiencies of synthetic vitamins. 1. Egg production, hatchability and chick growth. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 59:561-567.
66. Leeson, S., B. S. Reinhart, and J. D. Summers, 1979b. Response of White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red breeder hens to dietary deficiencies of synthetic vitamins. 2. Embryo mortality and abnormalities. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 59:569-575.
67. Lepkovsky, S. L., L. W. Taylor, T. H. Jukes, and J. H. Almquist, 1938. The effect of riboflavin and the filtrate factor on egg production and hatchability. Hilgardia 11:559-591.
68. Lillie, R. J., M. W. Olsen, and H. R. Bird, 1951. Variation in reproductive response of hens to dietary deficiency. Poultry Sci. 30:92-97.
69. Lopez, G., and S. Leeson, 1994. Egg weight and offspring performance of older broiler breeders fed low-protein diets. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 3:164-170.
70. Lopez, G., and S. Leeson, 1995. Response of broiler breeders to low-protein diets. 1. Adult breeder performance. Poultry Sci. 74:685-695.
71. Manson, J. M., K. J. Picken, M. H. Draper, and R. Thompson, 1993. Variation among individual White Leghorn hens in the concentration of minerals in the albumen and yolk content of their eggs. Br. Poult. Sci. 34:899-909.
72. March, B. E., V. Coates, and C. Goudie, 1972. Delayed hatching time of chicks from dams fed excess vitamin A and from eggs injected with vitamin A. Poultry Sci. 51:891-896.
73. Maw, A.J.G., 1954. Inherited riboflavin deficiency in chicken eggs. Poultry Sci. 33:216-217.
74. McDaniel, C. D., J. M. Balog, M. Freed, R. G. Elkin, R. H. Wellenreiter, T. Kuczek, and P. Y. Hester, 1993. Response of layer breeders to dietary acetylsalicylic acid. 3. Effects on fertility and hatchability of embryos exposed to control and elevated incubation temperatures. Poultry Sci. 72: 1100-1108.
75. McDaniel, G. R., D. A. Roland, Sr., and M. A. Coleman, 1979. The effect of egg shell quality on hatchability and embryonic mortality. Poultry Sci. 58:10-13.
76. Mehring, A. L., Jr., and D. Johnson, Jr., 1965. Magnesium in limestones for laying chickens. Poultry Sci. 44:853-860.
77. Naber, E. C., 1993. Modifying vitamin composition of eggs: a review. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 2:385-393.
78. Naber, E. C., and M. W. Squires, 1993. Vitamin profiles of eggs as indicators of nutritional status in the laying hen: diet to egg transfer and commercial flock survey. Poultry Sci. 72: 1046-1053.
79. Naber, E. C., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Bauman, and H. R. Bird, 1954. The effect of thiamine analogs on embryonic development and growth of the chick. J. Nutr. 54:579-591.
80. Nelson, F. E., J. K. Lauber, and L. Mirosh, 1964. Calcium and phosphorus requirement for the breeding coturnix quail. Poultry Sci. 43:1346. (Abstr.)
81. Noble, R. C., and N. Yafei, 1988. An association between low embryo hatchability in eggs from young broiler birds and aspects of lipid metabolism. Pages 640-641 in: Proceedings 18th World's Poultry Congress. Nagoya, Japan.
82. 12 deficiency. J. Nutr. 41:423-431.
83. Olson, G., L. D. Matterson, and J. Tlustohowicz, 1962. Effect of vitamin E and antioxidants on fertility and hatchability as affected by unsaturated fatty acids. Poultry Sci. 41:675-677.
84. O'Rourke, W. F., H. R. Bird, P. H. Phillips, and W. W. Cravens, 1954. The effect of low phosphorus rations on egg production and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 33:1117-1122.
85. 12 in hen diets on egg production and hatchability of eggs and on livability and growth of chicks. Poultry Sci. 56:45-53.
86. Pearson, R. A., and K. M. Herron, 1982. Effects of maternal energy and protein intakes on the incidence of malformations and malpositions of the embryo and time of death during incubation. Br. Poult. Sci. 23:71-77.
87. Polk, H. D., and G. R. Sipe, 1940. The effect of vitamin A deficiency on malposition of the chick embryo. Poultry Sci. 19:396-400.
88. Potter, L. M., A. T. Leighton, Jr., and A. B. Chu, 1974. Calcium, phosphorus and Nopgro as variables in diets of breeder turkeys. Poultry Sci. 53:15-22.
89. Qureshi, M. A., J. Brake, P. B. Hamilton, W. M. Hagler, Jr., and M. A. Brundage, 1994a. Dietary exposure of broiler breeders to aflatoxin results in immune function alterations in progeny chicks. Poultry Sci. 73 (Suppl. 1):156. (Abstr.)
90. Qureshi, M. A., J. Brake, P. B. Hamilton, W. M. Hagler, Jr., and M. A. Brundage, 1994b. Dietary exposure of broiler breeders to 4, 15-diacetoxyscirpenol results in immune function alterations in progeny chicks. Poultry Sci. 73 (Suppl. 1):157. (Abstr.)
91. Robel, E. J., 1991. The value of supplemental biotin for increasing hatchability of turkey eggs. Poultry Sci, 70:1716-1722.
92. Robel, E. J., 1992. Effect of dietary supplemental pyridoxine levels on the hatchability of turkey eggs. Poultry Sci. 71: 1733-1738.
93. Robel, E. J., 1993a. Evaluation of egg injection of folic acid and effect of supplemental folic acid on hatchability and poult weight. Poultry Sci. 72:546-553.
94. Robel, E. J., 1993b. Evaluation of egg injection method of pantothenic acid in turkey eggs and effect of supplemental pantothenic acid on hatchability. Poultry Sci. 72:1740-1745.
95. Robel, E. J., and V. L. Christensen, 1987. Increasing hatchability of turkey eggs with biotin egg injection. Poultry Sci. 66: 1429-1430.
96. Robel, E. J., and V. L. Christensen, 1991. Increasing hatchability of turkey eggs by injecting eggs with pyridoxine. Br. Poult. Sci. 32:509-513.
97. Romanoff, A. L., and A. J. Romanoff, 1972. Pathogenesis of the Avian Embryo. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY.
98. Rossi, A. F., R. D. Miles, S. M. Bootwalla, H. R. Wilson, and A. R. Eldred, 1993. The effect of feeding two sources of boron on broiler breeder performances. Poultry Sci. 72:1931-1934.
99. Rubin, M., and H. R. Bird, 1942. Relation of vitamin A to egg production and hatchability. Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. A 12 Technical.
100. Sell, J. L., R. Hajj, A. Cox, and W. Guenter, 1967. Effect of magnesium deficiency in the hen on egg production and hatchability of eggs. Br. Poult. Sci. 8:55-63.
101. Sewell, C. E., Jr., R. L. Atkinson, J. R. Couch, and T. M. Ferguson, 1972. The effect of supplemental phosphorus on the reproductive performance of turkey hens and the subsequent effect upon the poults. Poultry Sci. 51:792-796.
102. Singsen, E. P., A. H. Spandorf, L. D. Matterson, J. A. Serafin, and J. J. Tlustohowicz, 1962. Phosphorus in the nutrition of the adult hen. 1. Minimum phosphorus requirements. Poultry Sci. 41:1401-1414.
103. Squires, M. W., and E. C. Naber, 1993a. Vitamin profiles of eggs as indicators of nutritional status in the laying hen: vitamin A study. Poultry Sci. 72:154-164.
104. Squires, M. W., and E. C. Naber, 1993b. Vitamin profiles of eggs as indicators of nutritional status in the laying hen: riboflavin study. Poultry Sci. 72:483-494.
105. Stahl, J. L., M. E. Cook, and M. L. Sunde, 1986. Zinc supplementation: its effect on egg production, feed conversion, fertility, and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 65:2104-2109.
106. Stahl, J. L., J. L. Greger, and M. E. Cook, 1990. Breeding-hen and progeny performance when hens are fed excessive dietary zinc. Poultry Sci. 69:259-263.
107. 3 on turkey hen egg production, fertility and hatchability, embryo mortality and incidence of embryo malformations. Poultry Sci. 63:760-764.
108. Sunde, M. L., W. W. Cravens, C. A. Elvehjem, and J. G. Halpin, 1950. The effect of folic acid on embryonic development of the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 29:696-702.
109. Sunde, M. L., C. M. Turk, and H. F. DeLuca, 1978. The essentiality of vitamin D metabolites for embryonic chick development. Science 200:1067-1069.
110. Supplee, W. C., D. L. Blamberg, O. D. Keene, G. F. Combs, and G. L. Romoser, 1958. Observations on zinc supplementation of poultry rations. Poultry Sci. 37:1245-1246.
111. Taylor, L. W., 1947. The effect of folic acid on egg production and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 26:372-376.
112. Tengerdy, R. P., and C. F. Nockels, 1973. The effect of vitamin E on egg production, hatchability and humoral immune response of chickens. Poultry Sci. 52:778-783.
113. Thompson, J. N., 1969. Vitamin A in development of the embryo. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 22:1063-1069.
114. 12 as it affects hatchability of the hen's egg. Poultry Sci. 53:2125-2136.
115. Tullett, S. G., 1990. Science and the art of incubation. Poultry Sci. 69:1-15.
116. Vilchez, C., S. P. Touchburn, E. R. Chavez, and C. W. Chan, 1990a. The influence of supplemental corn oil and free fatty acids on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Sci. 69:1533-1538.
117. Vilchez, C., S. P. Touchburn, E. R. Chavez, and C. W. Chan, 1990b. Dietary palmitic and linoleic acids and reproduction of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Poultry Sci. 69: 1922-1930.
118. Vilchez, C., S. P. Touchburn, E. R. Chavez, and C. W. Chan, 1992. Effect of feeding palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids to Japanese quail hens (Coturnix coturnix japonica). 2. Maternal diets and stage of incubation on the lipid metabolism of quail embryos. Poultry Sci. 71:1032-1042.
119. Vo, K. V., N. A. Adefope, and T. Wakefield, Jr., 1994. Effect of dietary protein restriction and sulfur amino acid supplementation on reproductive efficiency of brown-egg type layers. Poultry Sci. 73 (Suppl. 1):163. (Abstr.)
120. Waldroup, P. W., C. F. Simpson, B. L. Damron, and R. H. Harms, 1967. The effectiveness of plant and inorganic phosphorus in supporting egg production in hens and hatchability and bone development in chick embryos. Poultry Sci. 46: 659-664.
121. 6 upon reproduction and upon plasma and egg cholesterol in chickens. J. Nutr. 109:1010-1017.
122. West, C. E., S. R. Sijtsma, H. P. Peters, J. H. Rombout, and A. J. van-der-Zijpp, 1992. Production of chickens with marginal vitamin A deficiency. Br. J. Nutr. 68:283-291.
123. Whitehead, C. C., M. H. Maxwell, R. A. Pearson, and K. M. Herron, 1985a. Influence of egg storage on hatchability, embryonic development and vitamin status in hatching broiler chicks. Br. Poult. Sci. 26:221-228.
124. Whitehead, C. C., R. A. Pearson, and K. M. Herron, 1985b. Biotin requirements of broiler breeders fed diets of different protein content and effect of insufficient biotin on the viability of progeny. Br. Poult. Sci. 26:73-82.
125. Whitehead, C. C., J. S. Rennie, H. A. McCormack, and P. M. Hocking, 1993. Defective down syndrome in chicks is not caused by riboflavin deficiency in breeders. Br. Poult. Sci. 34: 619-623.
126. Williams, J. K., C. E. Lampman, and D. W. Bolin, 1939. The efficiency of carotene as supplied by alfalfa meal in meeting the vitamin A requirement of laying hens. Poultry Sci. 18: 268-275.
127. Wilson, H. R., 1993. Hatchability problem analysis. Univ. Fla. Ext. Bull. 1112.
128. Wilson, H. R., J. L. Fry, and J. E. Jones, 1967. Studies of dietary piperazine, phenothiazine and dibutyltin dilaurate. 1. Fertility, hatchability and egg production. Poultry Sci. 46: 304-309.
129. Wilson, H. R., E. R. Miller, R. H. Harms, and B. L. Damron, 1980. Hatchability of chicken eggs as affected by dietary phosphorus and calcium. Poultry Sci. 59:1284-1289.
130. Wisser, L. A., B. S. Heinrichs, and R. M. Leach, 1990. Effect of aluminum on performance and mineral metabolism in young chicks and laying hens, J. Nutr. 120:493-498.
131. Wright, P. L., and F. R. Mraz, 1965. Toxicity of sulfur-35, selenium, and tellurium to avian embryos. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 118:534-539.
132. Zuidhof, M. J., F. E. Robinson, J.J.R. Feddes, R. T. Hardin, J. L. Wilson, R. I. McKay, and M. Newcombe, 1995. The effects of nutrient dilution on the well-being and performance of female broiler breeders. Poultry Sci. 74:441-456.