The American Epilepsy Society: An historic perspective on 50 years of advances in research

Epilepsia

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 124-150

  Goldensohn, Eli S ^a   Porter, Roger J ^a   Schwartzkroin, Philip A ^a  

^a American Epilepsy Society   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT;

ART; ARTICLE; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; HEALTH SERVICE; HISTORY; HUMAN; RESEARCH; UNITED STATES;

ANTICONVULSANTS; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; EPILEPSY; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, ANCIENT; HUMANS; PORTRAITS; RESEARCH; UNITED STATES; VOLUNTARY HEALTH AGENCIES;

EID: 0030638278     PISSN: 00139580     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1157.1997.tb01088.x     Document Type: Article

References (221)

1. Temkin 0. The falling sickness. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.
2. Scott DF. The history of epileptic therapy: account of how medication was discovered. Pearl River, NY: Parthenon Publishing Group, 1993.
3. Hippocrates. On the sacred disease. In: Ouvres completes d'Hippocrate par E. Litlre. Paris: 1839-1861.
4. Saunders DC, O'Malley CD. Vesalius. Cleveland: World Pulishing, 1950.
5. Gilbert R. De magnete magnetisque corporibus et de magno magneto tellure: physiologica nova plurimus et argumentis et experimentis demonstrata. London: Peter Short, 1600. (English translation. New York: Dover Press, 1958).
6. Galileo G. Dialogues on tn'O chief systems of the world (Translation). London: Salisbury, 1667.
7. Aldini G. Essai théorique et experimental sur le galvanisme. Paris: Foumier, 1804;! (plate 5): 1-398.
8. Galvani L. De viribus electricitatis in muto musculare commentarius. Vol 7. De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artrium Instituto atque Academia Commentani, 1791:363.
9. Aldini G. De animali electricitae dissertatïones duae. Bologna Italy: Bonaniae: Ex Typographia Institut! Scientificarum, 1794.
10. Von Humboldt FA. Versuche über de gereizte Muskel und Nervenfaser. Berlin: Decker, Posen, and Rottman, 1797.
11. Volta AGA. Utter to Sir Joseph Banks, March 20, 1800: on electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting substances of different kinds. Philos Trans R Soc Land 1800;90:403-43.
12. DuBois-Raymond E. Untersuchungen über thierische Electricität. Vols I.II. Berlin: Reimer, 1849.
13. Fritsch GT, Hitzig E. Über die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns. Arch Anal Physiol 1870;37:300-32.
14. Caton R. The electrical currents of the brain. Br Med J 1875;2: 278.
15. Pravdich-Neminsky W. Ein Versuch der Registrierung der Elektrischen Gehirnerscheinungen. Zentralbl Physiol 1912;27:951-60.
16. Cybulsky N, Jelenska-Macieszyna X. Action currents of the cerebral cortex [in Polish]. Bull Acad Sei Cracov 1914;B:776-81.
17. Jackson, JH. Selected writings of John Hughlings Jackson. Taylor J, ed. London: Hodder & Staughton, 1931.
18. Cowers, WR. Epilepsy and other chronic convulsive diseases: their causes, symptoms and treatment. London: J & A Churchill, 1881.
19. Sommer W. Erkrankung des Ammonshorns als aetiologisches Moment der Epilepsie. Arch Psychiatr Nenenkr 1880:10:631-75.
20. Locock C. Discussion of a paper by E.H. Sievking: meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirugical Society of London. Lancet 1857;1:527.
21. Sieveking EH. Analysis of 52 cases of epilepsy observed by the author. Lancet 1857;l:527-8.
22. Turner WA, ed. Epilepsy, a study of the idiopathic disease. New York: Macmillan, 1907. [Reprinted by Raven Press, New York, 1973]
23. Hauptmann A. Luminal bei epilepsie. Munch Med Wochenschr 1912;59:1907-9.
24. Putnam TJ, Merritt HH. Experimental determination of the anticonvulsant properties of some phenyl derivatives. Science 1937; 85:525-6.
25. Merritt HH, Putnam TJ. Sodium diphenyl hydantoinate in the treatment of convulsive disorders. JAMA 1938:111:1068-73.
26. Berger H. Über das Electrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Arch Psychiatr Nen-enkr 1929;87:527-70.
27. Berger H. Über das Electrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Siebente Mitteilung. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1933;100:301-20.
28. Gibbs FA, Davis H. Lennox WG. The EEC in epilepsy and in the impaired States of consciousness. Arch Neural Psychiatry 1935; 34:1133-48.
29. Gibbs FA, Lennox WG, Gibbs EL. The electroencephalogram in diagnosis and in localizaton of epileptic seizures. Arch Neural Psychiatry 1936;36:1225-35.
30. Jasper HH. Localized analyses of the function of the human brain by the electro-encephalogram. Arch Neural Psychiatry 1936;36: 1131-1.
31. Brazier MAB. The EEC Journal loses one of its founders. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1972;33(2):i-ii.
32. Pope A, Morris AA, Jasper H, Elliott KAC, Penfield W. Histochemical and action potential studies on epileptogenic areas of cerebral cortex in man and the monkey. Res PublAssoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 1946:26:218.
33. Hunter J, Jasper HH. A method of simultaneous analysis of sei-zures and EEC on film. Eleclroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1949;1:113.
34. Goldensohn ES. Simultaneous recording of EEG and clinical seizures using kinescope. Eleclroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1966:21:623.
35. Delgado-Escueta AV, Nashold B, Freedman M, et al. Videotaping epileptic attacks during stereoelectroencephalography. Neurology 1979:29:473-89.
36. Forbes A, Thatcher C. Amplification of action currents with the electron tube in recording with the string galvanometer. Am J Physiol 1920:52:409-71.
37. Eccles JC. Alexander Forbes and his achievement in electrophysiology. Perspect Biol Med 1970;13:388-404.
38. Renshaw B, Forbes A, Morison BR. Activity of isocortex and hippocampus: electrical studies with microelectrodes. J Neurophysiol 1940;3:74-105.
39. Ajmone-Marsan C. Chronic intracranial recording and electrocorticography. In: Daly DD, Pedley TA, eds. Current practice of clinical electroencephalography. 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press, 1990:535-60.
40. Penfield W, Jasper HH. Epilepsy and the functional anatomy of the human brain. Boston: Little, Brown, 1954.
41. Niedermeyer E. Historical aspects. In: Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Suva F, eds. Electroencephalography. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1993:1-14.
42. Ebersole JS. EEG and MEG dipole source modeling. In: Engel J Jr, Pedley TA, eds. Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook. New York: Lippincott-Raven (in press).
43. Penry JK, Dreifuss FE. Automatisms associated with the absence of petit mal epilepsy. Arch Neural 1969;21:142-9.
44. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised seizure classification. Epilepsia 1981;22:489-501.
45. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1989;22: 489-501.
46. Van Buren JM, Ajmone-Marsan C, Mutsuga N, et al. Surgery of temporal lobe epilepsy. In: Purpura D, Penry JK, Walter RD, eds. Neurosurgical management of the epilepsies. New York: Raven Press, 1975:155-96.
47. Gibbs FA, Lennox \VG, Gibbs EL. Cerebral .blood flow preceding and accompanying epileptic seizures in -man. Arch Neural Psychiatry 1934;32:257-72.
48. Sakai F, Meyer JS, Naritomi H, Hsu MC. Regional cerebral blood flow and EEG in patients with epilepsy. Arch Neural 1978;35: 648-57.
49. Lee BI, Markand ON, Wellman HN, et al. HIPDM-SEPCT in patients with medically intractable complex partial seizures: ictal study. Arch Neural 1988;45:397-402.
50. Marks DA, Katz A, Hoffer P, Spencer SS. Localization of extratemporal epileptic foci during ictal single photon emission computed tomography. Ann Neural 1992;31:250-5.
51. Kühl DE, Engel J Jr, Phelps ME, et al. Epileptic patterns of local cerebral glucose metabolism and perfusion in humans determined by emission computed tomography of I8FDG and 13NH3. Ann Neural 1980;8:348-60.
52. Engel J, Kühl DE, Phelps ME, Rausch R, Nuwer M. Local cerebral metabolism during partial seizures. Neurology 1983;33: 400-13.
53. Engel J Jr, Kühl DE, Phelps ME. Patterns of human local cerebral glucose metabolism during epileptic seizures. Science 1982;218: 64-6.
54. Theodore WH, Brooks R, Sato S, et al. Positron emission tomography in generalized seizures. Neurology 1985:35:684-90.
55. Theodore WH, Sato S, Kufta C, et al. Temporal lobectomy for uncontrolled seizures: the role of positron emission tomography. Ann Neural 1992;32:789-94.
56. Chugani HT, Shewmon DA, Shields WD, et al. Surgery for intractable infantile spasms: imaging perspectives. Epilepsia 1993; 34:764-71.
57. Theodore WH. Antiepileptic drugs and cerebral glucose metabolism. Epilepsia 1988;29(suppl 2):S48-55.
58. Frost JJ, Mayberg HS, Fisher RS, et al. Mu-opiate receptors measured by positron emission tomography are increased in temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neural 1988;23:231-7.
59. Henry TR, Frey KA, Sackellares JC, et al. In vivo cerebral metabolism and central benzodiazepine receptor binding in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology 1993;43:1998-2006.
60. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging. Neurology 1992;42:2of-8.
61. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of human temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology 1992;42:1586-90.
62. Petroff OAC, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Mattson RH. Initial observations on effect of vigabatrin on in vivo "H spectroscopic measurements of gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, and glutamine in human brain. Epilepsia 1995:36:457-64.
63. Pardo JV, Fox PT. Preoperative assessment of the cerebral hemispheric dominance for language with CBF PET. Hum Brain Mapping 1993;l:57-68.
64. Swartz BS, Haigren E, Fuster JM, et al. Conical metabolic activation in humans during a visual memory task: an I8FDG-PET study of cortical activation during a short-term visual memory task in humans. Cereb Cortex 1995;5:205-14.
65. Desmond JE, Sum JM, Wagner AD, et al. Functional MRI measurement of language lateralization in Wada-tested patients. Brain 1995;! 18:1411-20.
66. Haglund MM, Ojemann GA, Schwanz TW, Leuich E. Neuronal activity in human lateral temporal cortex during serial retrieval from short-term memory. J Neurosci 1994;14:1507-15.
67. Goodman LS, Grewal MS, Brown \VC, Swinyard EA. Comparison of maximal seizures evoked by pentylenetetrazol (Metrazol) and electroshock in mice, and their modification by anticonvulsants. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1953:108:168-76.
68. Richards RK, Everett GM. Analgesic and anticonvulsant properties of 3,5,5-trimethyloxazolidine-2,4-dione (Tridione). Fed Proc 1944;3:39.
69. Lennox WG. The petit mal epilepsies: their treatment with Tridione. JAMA 1945:129:1069-74.
70. Porter RJ, Cereghino JJ, Gladding GD, et al. Antiepileptic Drug Development Program. Cleve Clin Q 1984:51:293-305.
71. Flanigin HF, Hermann BP, King DW, Gallagher BB, Smith JR. The history of surgical treatment of epilepsy in North America prior to 1975. In: Lüders H, eds. Epilepsy surgery. New York: Raven Press, 1991:19-36.
72. O'Leary JL, Goldring S. Science and epilepsy. New York: Raven Press, 1976:119-52. .
73. Jasper HH. Diffuse projection system. The integrative action of the thalamic reticular system. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1949;1:405-20.
74. Steriade M, Contreras D, Amzica F. Synchronized sleep oscillations and their paroxysmal developments. Trends Neurol Sei 1994;17:199-208.
75. von Krosigk M, Bal T, Mccormick DA. Cellular mechanisms of a synchronized oscillation in the thalamus. Science 1993;261: 361.
76. Gibbs EL, Lennox WG, Gibbs FA. Variations in the carbon dioxide content of the blood in epilepsy. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1940;43:223.
77. Timiras PS, Woodbury DM, Goodman LS. Effect of adrenalectomy, hydrocortisone acetate and desoxycorticosterone acetate on brain excitability and electrolyte distribution in mice. J PhannacolExp Ther 1954:1112:80.
78. Woodbury DM, Rollins LT, Gardner MD, et al. Effects of carbon dioxide in brain excitability and electrolytes. Am Physiol 1958; 192:79.
79. McKhann GM, Tower DB. Ammonia toxicity and cerebral oxidative metabolism. Am J Physiol 1961;200:420-4.
80. Kennard DW. Glass microcapillary electrodes used for measuring potential in living tissues. In: Donaldson PEK, ed. Electronic apparatus for biological research. London: Butterworths, 1958: 534-67.
81. Morison RS, Dempsey EW. Mechanism of thalamocortical augmentation and repetition. Am J Physiol 1943:138:297-308.
82. Atkinson JR, Ward AA Jr. Intracellular studies of cortical neurons in chronic epileptogenic foci in the monkey. Exp Neural 1964; 10:285.
83. Kandel ER, Spencer WA. Electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons. II. Afterpotentials and repetitive firing. J Neurophysiol 1961;24:243-59.
84. Kandel ER, Spencer WA. Excitation and inhibition of single pyramidal cells during hippocampal seizure. Exp Neurol 1961;4: 162.
85. Kandel ER, Spencer WA. The pyramidal cell during hippocampal seizure. Epilepsia 1961:2:63-9.
86. Goldensohn ES, Shofer RJ, Purpura DP. Ontogenesis of focal discharges in epileptogenic lesions of cat neocortex. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1963;15:163-4.
87. 86a. Goldensohn ES, Purpura DP. Intracellular potentials of cortical neurons during focal epileptogenic discharges. 1963;139:840-2.
88. Goldensohn ES, Ferez M, Feier J. Intracellular potentials and unit discharge patterns in primary and mirror epileptogenic foci. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1965;18:519.
89. Leao AAP. Spreading depression of activity in the cerebral cortex. J Neurophysiol 1944:7:359-90.
90. Kopeloff LM, Chusid JG, Kopeloff N. Epilepsy in Macacca iniilatta after cortical or intracerebral alumina. Arch Neural Psychiatry 1955:74:523-6
91. Roberts E. Inhibition in the nervous system and gammaaminobutyric acid. New York: Pergamon Press, 1960.
92. Mattson RH, Bickford RO. Firing patterns of strychnine spikes in the cortex of the cat. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1961:13:144-5.
93. Matsumoto H, Ajmone-Marsan C. Cortical cellular phenomena in experimental epilepsy: interictal manifestations. Exp Neural 1964:9:286-304.
94. Walker AE, Johnston HC. Convulsive factor in commercial penicillin. Arch Surg 1945;50:69-73.
95. Ward AA Jr. The epileptic neuron: chronic foci in animals and man. In: Jasper HH, Ward AA Jr, Pope A, eds. Basic mechanisms of the epilepsies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1969:263-88.
96. Echlin FA. The supersensitivity of chronically "isolated" cerebral cortex as a mechanism in focal epilepsy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1959;ll:697-722.
97. Sharpless SK, Halpem LM. The electrical excitability of chronically isolated cortex studied by means of permanently implanted electrodes. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1962:14:24455.
98. Grain SM, Bornstein MB. Bioelectric activity of neonatal mouse cerebral cortex during growth and differentiation in tissue culture. Exp Neural 1964; 10:425-50.
99. Creutzfeldt OD, Watanabe S, Lux HD. Relations between EEG phenomena and potentials of single cortical cells. II. Spontaneous and convulsoid activity. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1966:20:19-37.
100. Matsumoto H, Ajmone-Marsan C. Cellular mechanisms in experimental epileptic seizures. Science 1964;144:193.
101. Ayala GF, Dichter M, Gumnit RJ, Matsumoto H, Spencer WA. Genesis of epileptic interictal spikes: new knowledge of cortical feedback systems suggests a neurophysiological explanation of brief paroxysms. Brain Res 1973:52:1-17.
102. Dichter MA, Spencer WA. Penicillin-induced interictal discharges from the cat hippocampus. II. Mechanisms underlying origin and restriction. J Neurophysiol 1969;32:663-87.
103. Prince DA. The depolarization shift in "epileptic" neurons. Exp Neural 1968;21:467-85.
104. Goldring S, O'Leary JL. Cortical DC changes incident to midline thalamic stimulation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1957:9:577-84.
105. Karahashi Y, Goldring S. Intracellular potentials from "idle" cells in cerebral cortex of cat. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1966:20:600. '"
106. Nicholls JG, Kuffler SW. Extracellular space as a pathway for exchange between blood and neurons in central nervous system of leech: the ionic composition of glial cells and neurons. J Neurophysiol I964;27:645.
107. Ransom BR, Goldring S. Slow depolarization in cells presumed to be glia in cerebral cortex of cat. J Neurophysiol 1975;36:86978.
108. Futamachi KJ, Pedley TA. Glial cells and extracellular potassium: their relationship in mammalian cortex. Brain Res 1976:109:31122.
109. Lux HD. The kinetics of extracellular potassium: relation to epileptogenesis. Epilepsia 1974;15:375-93.
110. Fisher RS, Pedley TA, Moody WJ Jr, Prince DA. The role of extracellular potassium in hippocampal epilepsy. Arch Neurol 1976;33:76-83.
111. Zuckermann EC, Glaser GH. Hippocampal epileptic activity in duced by localized ventricular perfusion with high-potassium cerebrospinal fluid. Exp Neural 1968;20:87-110.
112. Fertziger AP, Ranck JB. Potassium accumulation in interstitial space during epileptiform seizures. Exp Neural 1970:26:571-85
113. Pollen DA, Trachtenberg MC. Neuroglia: gliosis and focal epilepsy. Science 1970; 167:1252-3.
114. Westrum LE, White LE Jr, Ward A A Jr. Morphology of the experimental epileptic focus. J Neurosiirg 1964:21:1033-46.
115. Scheibel ME, Crandall PH, Scheibel AB. The hippocampal dentate complex in temporal lobe epilepsy: a golgi study. Epilepsia 1974:15:55-80.
116. Schwartzkroin PA, Wyler AR. Mechanisms underlying epilepti form burst discharge. Ann Neural 1980:7:95-107.
117. Falconer MA. Mesial temporal (Ammon's horn) sclerosis as common cause of epilepsy: aetiology, treatment and prevention Lancet 1974;2:767-70.
118. Tower DB. Nature and extent of the biochemical lesion in humanepileptogenic cerebral cortex: an approach to its control in vitro, and in vivo. Neurology 1955;5:113.
119. Celesia GC, Jasper HH. Acetylcholine released from cerebral cortex in relation to state of activation. Neurology 1966;16:1053.
120. Swinyard EA. Laboratory assay of clinically effective antiepileptic drugs. J Am Phannacol Assoc 1949:38:201-4. 120. Jasper HH, Ward AA Jr, Pope A, eds. Basic mechanisms of the epilepsies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1969.
121. Purpura DP, Penry JK, Tower D, Woodbury DM, Walter R, eds. Experimental models of epilepsy-a manual for the laboratory worker. New York: Raven Press, 1972.
122. Li C-L, Mcllwain H. Maintenance of resting membrane potentials in slices of mammalian and cerebral cortex and other tissues in vitro. J Physiol 1957:139:178-90.
123. Gibson IM, Mcllwain H. Continuous recording of changes in membrane potential in mammalian cerebral tissues in vitro; recovery after depolarization by added substances. J Physiol 1961; 176:261-83.
124. Yamamoto C. Intracellular study of seizure-like afterdischarge . elicited in thin hippocampal sections in vitro. Exp Neural 1972; 35:154-64.
125. Schwartzkroin PA, Prince DA. Cellular and field potential properties of epileptogenic hippocampal slices. Brain Res 1978;147:117-30.
126. Thompson SM, Gahwiler BH. Activity-dependent disinhibition. I. Repetitive stimulation reduces IPSP driving force and conductance in the hippocampus in vitro. 1 Neurophysiol 1989;xx:501 II.
127. Barker JL, Mathers DA. GABA receptors and the depressant action of pentobarbital. Trends Neural Sei 1981;Jan:10-13.
128. Twyman RE, Rogers CJ, Macdonald RL. Differential regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor channels by diazepam and phénobarbital. Ann Neural 1989;25:213-20.
129. Kay AR, Wong RKS. Calcium current activation kinetics in isolated pyramidal neurones of the CA1 region of the mature guineapig hippocampus. J Physiol 1987;392:603-16.
130. Killiam KF, Killiam EK, Naquet R. An animal model of light sensitive epilepsy. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1967; 22:497.
131. Goddard GV, Mclntyre DC, Leech CKA. A permanent change in brain function resulting from daily electrical stimulation. Exp Neural 1969;25:295-330.
132. Wasterlain CG, Jonec V. Chemical kindling by muscarinic amygdaloid stimulation in the rat. Brain Res 1983;271:311-23.
133. Lothman EW, Hatlelid JM, Zorumski CF, et al. Kindling with rapidly recurring hippocampal seizures. Brain Res 1985;360:83-91.
134. Fisher RS. Animal models of the epilepsies. Brain Res Rev 1989; 14:245-78.
135. Nadler JV, Perry BW, Cotman CW. Intraventricular kainic acid preferentially destroys hippocampal pyramidal cells. Nature 1978;271:676-7.
136. Ben-Ari Y, Treniblay E, Ottersen OP, Meldrum BS. The role of epileptic activity in hippocampal and "remote" cerebral lesions induced by kainic acid. Brain Res 1980:191:79-97.
137. Turski WA, Cavalheiro EA, Schwanz M, et al. Limbic seizures produced by pilocarpine in rats: behavioral, electroencephalographic, and neuropathological study. Behav Brain Res 1983;9: 315-36.
138. Meldrum BS, Balzano E, Gadea M, Naquet R. Photic and druginduced epilepsy in the baboon (Papio papio); the effects of isoniazid, thiosemicarbazide, pyridoxine and amino-oxyacetic acid. Electroencephahgr Clin Neiirophysiol 1970;29:333-47.
139. Fuller JL, Collins RL. Mice unilaterally sensitized for audiogenicc seizures. Science 1968:162:1295.
140. Jobe PC, Picchioni AL, Chin L. Role of brain norepinephrine in audiogenic seizure in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1973:184: 1-10.
141. Suzuki J, Nakamoto Y. Seizure patterns and electroencephalograms in the El mouse. Electroencephahgr Clin Neiirophysiol 1977:43:229-311.
142. Noebels JL. A single gene error in noradrenergic growth synchronizes central neurons. Nature 1984;310:409-11.
143. Hosford D, Clark S, Cao Z, et al. The role of GABA(B) receptor activation in absence seizures of lethargic (Ih/lh) mice. Science 1992:257:398-401.
144. Vergnes M, Marescaux C, Depaulis A, Micheletti G, Warter J-M. Spontaneous spike and wave discharges in thalamus and cortex in rat model of genetic petit mal-like seizures. Exp Neural 1987;96:127-36.
145. Tsakiridou E, Bertolini L, de Curtis M, Avanzi G, Pape HC. Selective increase in T-type calcium conductance of reticular thalamic neurons in a rat model of absence epilepsy. J Neurosci 1995:15:3110-7.
146. Gloor P, Hall G, Coceani F. Differential epileptogenic action of penicillin on cortical and subcortical brain Structures. Electroencephahgr Clin Neiirophysiol 1967:23:491.
147. Gloor P, Fariello RG. Generalized epilepsy: some of its cellular mechanisms differ from those of focal epilepsy. Trends Neural Sci 1988;11:63-8.
148. Delgado-Escueta A, Ward AA Jr, Woodbury DM, Porter RJ, eds. Basic mechanisms of the epilepsies: molecular and cellular approaches. New York: Raven Press, 1986.
149. Delgado-Esceuta AV, Serratosa JM, Liu Am, et al. Progress in mapping human epilepsy genes. Epilepsia 1994;35(suppl 1):S29-40.
150. Steinlein OK, Mulley JC, Propping P, et al. A missense mutation in the neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 4 subunit is associated with autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy. Nature Genet 1995;11:201-3.
151. Eksioglu YZ, Scheffer IE, Cardenas P, et al. Periventricular heterotopia: an X-linked dominant epilepsy focus causing aberrant cerebral cortical development. Neuron 1996:16:77-87.
152. Noebels JL. Targeting epilepsy genes. Neuron 1996; 16:241-4.
153. A receptor subunits: alB1Y2s subunits produce unique ion channels with dissimilar single-channel properties. J Neurosci 1993;13:1429-40.
154. B receptor function is regulated by phosphorylation in acutely dissociated guinea-pig hippocampal neurones. J Physiol 1990;420:207-21.
155. Dingledine R, McBain CB, McNamara JO. Excitatory amino acids in epilepsy. Trends Pharmacol Sei 1992;11:334-8.
156. Monyer H, Bumashev N, Laune DJ, Sakmann B, Seeburg PH. Developmental and regional expression in the rat brain and functional properties of four NMDA receptors. Neuron 1994; 12:529-40.
157. Catterall WA. Structure and function of voltage-gated ion channels. Annu Rev Biochem 1995;64:493-53.
158. Loscher W, Honack D, Taylor CP. Gabapentin increases aminooxyacetic acid-induced GABA accumulation in several regions of rat brain. Neurosci Lett 1991:128:150-4.
159. Upton N. Mechanisms of action of new antiepileptic drugs: rational design and serendipitous findings. Trends Pharmacol Sei 1994;15:456-63.
160. Mattson RH, Petroff O, Rothman D, Behark K. Vigabatrin: effects on human brain GABA levels shown by nuclear magnetic resonance speclroscopy. Epilepsia 1994;35(suppl 5):529-32.
161. Rogers SW, Andrews PI, Gahring LC, et al. Autoantibodies to glutamate receptor GIuR3 in Rasmussen's encephalitis. Science 1994;265:648-51.
162. Coulter DA, Huguenard JR, Prince DA. Characterization of ethosuximide reduction of low-threshold calcium current in thalamic neurons. Ann Neural 1989;25:582-93.
163. Ferrendelli J. Role of biogenic amines and cyclic nucleotides in seizure mechanisms. Ann Neural 1984;16(suppl):98-103.
164. Logothetis J, Harner R, Morrell F, Torres F. The role of estrogens in catamenial exacerbation of epilepsy. Neurology 1959;9:352.
165. DeLorenzo RJ. A molecular approach to the calcium signal in brain: relationship to synaptic modulation and seizure discharge. Adv Neural 1986;44:435-64.
166. Wong RKS, Prince DA. Participation of calcium spikes during intrinsic burst firing in hippocampal neurons. Brain Res 1978; 159:385-90.
167. Wong RKS, Prince DA, Basbaum M. Intradendritic recordings from hippocampal neurons. Proc Nail Acad Sei USA 1979;76: 986-90.
168. Magee JC, Christofi G, Miyakawa H, et al. Subthreshold synaptic activation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels mediates a localized Ca2t influx into the dendrites of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. J Neurophysiol 1995;74:1335.
169. Ghojh A, Greenberg ME. Calcium signaling in neurons: molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences. Science 1995;268: 239.
170. Griffiths T, Evans MC, Meldrum BS. Status epilepticus: the reversibility of calcium loading and acute neuronal pathological changes in the rat hippocampus. Neuroscience 1984; 12:557-67.
171. Choi DW. Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity in cortical cell culture. J Neurosci 1987;7:369-79.
172. Mody I, Stanton PK, Heinemann. Activation of W-methyl-Daspartate receptors parallels changes in cellular and synaptic properties of dentate granule cells after kindling. J Neurophysiol 1988;59:1033-54.
173. Lothman EW. Functional anatomy: a challenge for the decade of the brain. Epilepsia 1991;32(suppl 5):S3-13.
174. Sutula TP, Cavazos JE, Woodard AR. Long-term structural and functional alterations induced in the hippocampus by kindling: implications for memory dysfunction and the development of epilepsy. Hippocampus 1994;4:254-8.
175. Johnston D, Brown TH. Giant synaptic potential hypothesis for epileptiform activity. Science 1981;211:294-7.
176. Dingledine R, Gjerstad L. Reduced inhibition during epileptiform activity in the in vitro hippocampal slide. J Physiol 1980;305: 297-313.
177. Kapur J, Michelson HB, Buterbaugh GG, Lothman EW. EpilepsyRes 1989;4:90-9.
178. Sloviter RS. Permanently altered hippocampal structure, excitability, and inhibition after experimental status epilepticus in the rat; the "dormant basket cell" hypothesis and its possible relevance to temporal lobe epilepsy. Hippocampus 1991;l:41-66.
179. Chamberlain NL, Traub RD, Dingledine R. Role of EPSPs in initiation of spontaneous synchronized burst-firing in rat hippocampal neurons bathed in high potassium. J Neurophysiol 1990; 64:1000-8.
180. Gutnick MJ, Prince DA. Thalamocortical relay neurons: antidromic invasion of spikes from a cortical epileptogenic focus. Science 1972; 176:424-6.
181. Taylor CP, Dudek FE. Synchronous neural afterdischarges in rat hippocampal slices without active chemical synapses. Science 1982;218:810-2.
182. Traub RD, Wong RKS. Synchronized burst discharge in the disinhibited hippocampal slice. II. Model of the cellular mechanism. J Neurophysiol 1983:49:459-71.
183. Wong RKS, Traub R. Synchronized burst discharge in the disinhibited hippocampal slice. I. Initiation in the CA2-CA3 region. J Neurophysiol I983;49:442-58.
184. Chagnac-Amitai Y, Connors BW. Horizontal spread of synchronized activity in neocortex and its control by GABA-mediated inhibition. J Neurophysiol 1989;61:747-58.
185. Stringer JL, Lothman EW. Maximal dentate gyms activation: characteristics and alterations after repeated seizures. J Neurophysiol 1989;63:225-39.
186. Piredda S, Gale K. A crucial epileptogenic site in the deep prepiriform cortex. Nature 1985:317:623-5.
187. Mcintyre DC, Plant JR. Long-lasting changes in the origin of spontaneous discharges from amygdala kindled rats: piriform vs. perirhinal cortex in vitro. Brain Res 1993;624:268-76.
188. ladorola MJ, Gale K. Substantia nigra: site of anticonvulsant activity mediated by gamma-aminobutyric acid. Science 1982; 218:1237-10.
189. McNamara J. Kindling, an animal model of complex partial epilepsy. Ann N enrol 1984;16(suppl):72-6.
190. Moshé SL, Brown LL, Kubova H, et al. Maturation and segregation of brain networks that modify seizures. Brain Res 1994; 665:141-6.
191. Plum F, Posner JB, Troy B. Cerebral metabolic and circulatory responses to induced convulsions in animals. Arch Neural 1968; 18:1.
192. Meldrum BS, Vigoroux RA, Brierley JB. Systemic factors and epileptic brain damage: prolonged seizures in paralyzed artificially ventilated baboons. Arch Neural 1973;29:82-7.
193. Gaillard WD, Bhatia S, Bookheimer SY, et al. FDG-PET and volumetric MRI in the evaluation of patients with partial epilepsy. Neurology 1995:45:123-6.
194. Ransom BR. Glial modulation of neural excitability mediated by extracellular pH; a hypothesis. Prog Brain Res 1992;94:37-16.
195. Traynelis SF, Dingledine R. Role of extracellular space in hyperosmotic suppression ofpotassium-induced electrographic seizures. J Neurophysiol 1989;61:927-38.
196. Hochman DW, Baraban SC, Owens JWM, Schwartzkroin PA. Dissociation of synchronization:and excitability in furosemide blockade of epileptiform activity.' Science 1995;270:99-102.
197. Lee SH, Magge S, Spencer DD, Soiitheimer H, Cornell-Bell AH. Human epileptic astrocytes exhibit increased gap junction coupling. Glia 1995;15:195-202.
198. Parpura V, Basarsky TA, Liu F, Jeftinija K, Haydon PG. Glutamate-mediated astrocyte-neuron signalling [Letter]. Nature 1994; 369:744-7.
199. Brotchi J. The activated astrocyte-a histochemical approach to the epileptic focus. In: Schoeffeniels E, et al., eds. Dynamic properties ofglial cells. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978:429-33.
200. Meldrum BS, Corsellis JAN. Epileptogenesis in the immature central nervous system. In: Schwartzkroin PA, Wheal HV, eds. Electrophysiology of epilepsy. London: Academic Press, 1984: 389-412.
201. Ribak CE, Joubran C, Kesslak W, Bakay RAE. A selective decrease in the number of GABAergic somata occurs in pre-seizing monkeys with alumina gel granuloma. Epilepsy Res 1989;4:12638.
202. Babb TL, Pretorius JR, Kupfer WR, Crandall PH. Glutamate decarboxylase-immunoreactive neurons are preserved in human epileptic hippocampus. J Neurosci 1989;9:2562-74.
203. Tauck DL, Nadler JV. Evidence of functional mossy fiber sprouting in hippocampal formation of kainic acid-treated rats. / Neurosci 1985;5:1016-22.
204. Sutula T, Cascino G. Cavazos J, Parada I, Ramirez L. Mossy fiber synaptic reorganization in the epileptic human temporal lobe. An Neurol 1989;26:321-30.
205. Cavazos JE, Sutula TP. Progressive neuronal loss induced b kindling: a possible mechanism for mossy fiber synaptic reorga nization and hippocampal sclerosis. Brain Res 1990;527:1-6.
206. Meldrum BS. Excitotoxicity and epileptic brain damage. Epileps RM 1991:10:56-61.
207. Sloviter RS. The functional organization of the hippocampal denf täte gyrus and its relevance to the pathogenesis of temporal lob epilepsy. Ann Neural 1994;35:640-54.
208. Bishop EF. The strychnine spike as a physiological indicator cortical maturity in the postnatal rabbit. Electroencephalogr Clic, Neuropliysiol 1950;2:309-15.
209. Flexner LB, Tyler DB, Gallant U. Biochemical and physiological differentiation during morphogenesis. J Neuropliysiol 1950;6.427-30.
210. Grossman C. Electro-ontogenesis of cerebral activity. Arch Neuroi Psych 1955;74:186-200.
211. Purpura DP, McMurtry JG, Leonard CF, Malliani A. Evidence for dendritic origin of spikes without depolarizing prepotentials in hippocampal neurons during and after seizure. J Neuropliysiol 1966:29:954.
212. Purpura DP, Prelevic S, Santini M. Postsynaptic potentials and spike variations in the feline hippocampus during postnatal on tbgenesis. Exp Neurol 1968;22:40S-22.
213. Kellaway P, Fox BJ. Electroencephalographic diagnosis of cerebral pathology in infants during sleep. I. Rationale, technique, and, the characteristics of normal sleep in infants. J Pedlar 1952;41:262-87.
214. Hunt WE, Goldring S. Maturation of evoked response of the visual cortex in the postnatal rabbit. Electroencephalogr Clin Neuropliysiol 1951;3:465-71.
215. Moshé SL. The effects of age on the kindling phenomenon. Dev Psychobiol 1981; 14:75-81.
216. Swann JW, Brady RJ, Martin DL. Postnatal development of GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition in rat hippocampus. Neuro science 1989;28:551-61.
217. 2+ changes during epileptiform discharges in the immature rat neocortex, Dev Brain Res 1987:36:299-303.
218. Schwartzkroin PA. Epileptogenesis in the immature nervous system. In: Schartzkroin PA, Wheal H, eds. Electrophysiology of epilepsy. New York: Academic Press, 1984:389-412.
219. Schwartzkroin PA, Moshé SL, Noebels JL, Swann JW, eds. Brain development and epilepsy. New York: Oxford, 1995.
220. de la Court A, Breteler MM, Meinardi H, Hauser WA, Hofman A. Prevalence of epilepsy in the elderly: the Rotterdam study. Epilepsia 1996;37:141-7.
221. Lowenstein DH, Thomas MJ, Smith DH, Mclntosh TK. Selective vulnerability of dentate hilar neurons following traumatic brain injury: a potential mechanistic link between head trauma and disorders of the hippocampus. J