Palaeoflood hydrology: Method and application in flood-prone southern Africa

South African Journal of Science

Volumn 93, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 111-132

  Zawada, P K ^a  

^a Western Cape Regional Office   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FLOOD PREDICTION; MODELLING; PALAEOFLOOD RECORD; SLACK WATER DEPOSIT;

AFRICA, (SOUTHERN);

EID: 0030613614     PISSN: 00382353     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Water Science and Technology Board (1988). Estimating probabilities of extreme floods. Methods and recommended research. National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
2. American Meteorological Society (1978). Flash floods - a national problem. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 59, 585-586.
3. Lundgren L. (1986). Environmental Geology. Prentice-Hall, London.
4. Costa J.E. and Baker V.R. (1981). Surficial Geology. Building with the Earth. John Wiley, New York.
5. Platt R.H. (1979). Options to improve federal non-structural response to floods. US Water Resources Council, Washington, DC.
6. Smith D.K. (1989). Natural disaster reduction: how meteorological services can help. World Meteorol. Organ., booklet 722, Geneva.
7. Geomining Technological Institute of Spain (1991). Natural disasters in the world, 1991. Geoenvironmental Engineering Series, Madrid.
8. United Nations Disaster and Refugee Office (1991). News 7-8.
9. Frank N.L. and Husain S.A. (1971). The deadliest tropical cyclone in history? Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 52, 438-445.
10. Bingham A. (1989). Floods of aid for Bangladesh. New Scientist 124, 42-46.
11. Nutalaya P. (1989). Flooding and land subsidence in Asia. Episodes 12, 239-248.
12. Fourie L.W. (1990). Impact of floods. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
13. Marais G.F. (1981). Day of the Buffalo. G.F. Marais, Strand.
14. Alexander W.J.R. (1988). Flood hydrology: are we addressing the real issues? In Floods in Perspective. CSIR conference organised by the South African Institution of Civil Engineers, Pretoria.
15. Van Heerden J. (1990). Flood producing rainfall events. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
16. Baker V.R. (1993). Learning from the past. Nature 361, 402-403.
17. Snell E.F.A. (1990). Control of development along water courses towards the development of a national flood plain policy. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
18. Zawada P.K. and Hattingh J. (1993). Reconnaissance study of palaeoflood sites of South Africa. Water Research Commission, Pretoria.
19. Zawada P.K. (1996). Palaeoflood hydrology of selected South African rivers. PhD thesis, University of Port Elizabeth.
20. Smith A.M. and Zawada P.K. (1989) Unpublished field notes on the palaeoflood hydrology of the Sand River, Wilge River and the Orange River at Vioolsdrif.
21. Smith A.M. and Zawada P.K. (1990). Palaeoflood hydrology: a tool for South Africa? An example from the Crocodile River near Brits, Transvaal, South Africa. Water SA 16, 195-200.
22. Zawada P.K. and Hattingh J. and van Bladeren D. (1996). Paleoflood hydrological analysis of selected South African rivers. Water Res. Comm. Rep. no. 509/1/96, Pretoria.
23. Zawada P.K. (1991). Palaeofloods and the climatic record. S. Afr. J. Sci. 87, 362.
24. Zawada P.K. (1994). Palaeoflood hydrology of the Buffels River, Laingsburg, South Africa: was the 1981 flood the largest? S. Afr. J. Geol. 97, 21-32.
25. Zawada P.K. (1995). Palaeoflood hydrology of South African rivers: evidence for Holocene catastrophic flooding in the lower Orange River valley. In Abstracts, International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), XIV Int. Congr., Berlin.
26. Hattingh J. and Zawada P.K. (1996). Relief peels in the study of palaeoflood slack-water sediments. Geomorphology 16, 121-126.
27. Kovács Z. (1988). Regional maximum flood peaks in southern Africa. Dept. Water Affairs and Forestry Tech. Report, TR 137, Pretoria.
28. Alexander W.J.R. (1990). Flood hydrology for southern Africa. South African National Committee on Large Dams (SANCOLD), Pretoria.
29. Alexander W.J.R. (1990). Flood hydrology: empiricism, logic and science. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
30. Alexander W.J.R. and Kovács Z.P. (1988). Lessons learnt from exceptional floods in southern Africa. In Sixteenth Congress of the International Commission of Large Dams (ICOLD), pp. 1223-1238, San Francisco.
31. Kochel R.C. (1980). Interpretation of flood palaeohydrology using slack-water deposits, Lower Pecos and Devils rivers, southwestern Texas. PhD thesis, University of Texas, Austin.
32. US Water Resources Council (1976). Guidelines for determining the flood flow frequency. Hydrology Committee Bulletin 17, Washington, DC.
33. Klemeǎ V. (1988). The improbable probabilities of extreme floods and droughts. In Proceedings, Technical conference of the World Meteorological Organization, Geneva. James and James, London.
34. Van Wyk N.J., Keuris H. and Du Plessis D.B. (1990). Flood peak measurement in South Africa. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
35. Adamson P.T. (1975). Problems in assessing the quality of input models. Symposium on control theory, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
36. Muller A.M.M. (1978). Die beplanning van 'n optimale riviervloeimeetstasienetwerk vir Suid Afrika. MSc thesis, University of Pretoria.
37. Baker V.R., Ely L.L., O'Connor J.E. and Partridge J.B. (1987). Paleoflood hydrology and design applications. In Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, ed. V.P. Singh, pp. 339-353. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
38. Hirschboeck K.K. (1988). Flood hydroclimatology. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 27-49. John Wiley, New York.
39. US Water Resources Council (1981). Guidelines for determining flood flow frequency. Hydrology Committee Bulletin 17B, Washington, DC.
40. Tyson P.D. and Lindesay J.A. (1992). The climate of the last 2000 years in southern Africa. The Holocene 2, 271-278.
41. Barron E.J., Hay W.W. and Thompson S. (1989). The hydrologic cycle; a major variable during Earth history. Palaeogeog. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 75, 157-174.
42. Kovács Z. (1990). Regional maximum flood peaks in southern Africa. In Course on practical flood risk analysis, lecture notes. University of Pretoria.
43. Enzel Y., Ely L.L., Kyle House P., Baker V.R. and Webb R.H. (1993). Paleoflood evidence for a natural upper bound to flood magnitudes in the Colorado River basin. Water Resource Res. 29, 2287-2297.
44. Kovács Z. (1980). Maximum flood-peak discharges in South Africa: An empirical approach. Dept. Water Affairs and Forestry Tech. Report, TR 105, Pretoria.
45. Francou J. and Rodier J.A. (1967). Essai de classification des crues maximales. Proceedings of the Leningrad Symposium on floods and their computation. UNESCO, Paris.
46. Costa J.E. (1978). Holocene stratigraphy in flood frequency analysis. Water Resource Res. 14, 626-632.
47. Costa J.E. (1986). A history of paleoflood hydrology in the United States, 1800-1970. Eos 67, 425-430.
48. Stedinger J.R. and Baker V.R. (1987). Surface water hydrology: historical and paleoflood information. Rev. Geophys. 25, 119-124.
49. Gregory K.J. (1983). Introduction. In Background to Palaeohydrology, ed. K.J. Gregory, pp.3-23. John Wiley, New York.
50. Baker V.R. (1994). Discovering Earth's future in its past: palaeohydrology and geomorphological change. Abstract Proc. (p. 8), Global continental changes: the context of palaeohydrology, organised by the INQUA Commission on Global Continental Palaeohydrology (GLOCOPH) and the British Geomorphological Research Group held at the Geological Society of London, September 1994.
51. Gregory K.J. and Lewin J. (1987). Conclusions: palaeohydrological synthesis and application. In Palaeohydrology in Practice: a River Basin Analysis, eds K.J. Gregory, J. Lewin and J.B. Thornes, pp. 341-360. John Wiley, Chichester.
52. Gregory K.J. (1995). Human activity and palaeohydrology. In Global Continental Palaeohydrology, eds K.J. Gregory, L. Starkel and V.R. Baker, pp. 151-172. John Wiley, Chichester.
53. Benito G. Pérez-Gonzàlez and Machado M.J. (1994). Climate change and flood sensitivity in the Tajo River, Spain. Abstract Proc. (p. 4), GLOCOPH '94, INQUA Commission on Global Continental Palaeohydrology, Southampton, England.
54. Kochel R.C. and Baker V.R. (1988). Paleoflood analysis using slackwater deposits. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 357-376. John Wiley, New York.
55. Williams G.P. (1988). Paleofluvial estimates from dimensions of former channels and meanders. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 321-334. John Wiley, New York.
56. Baker V.R., Kochel R.C. and Patton P.C. (1988). Paleofloods. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 317-320. John Wiley, New York.
57. Williams G.P. (1984). Paleohydrologic equations for rivers. In Developments and Applications of Geomorphology, eds J.E. Costa and P.J. Fleisher, pp. 343-367. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
58. Baker V.R. (1987). Paleoflood hydrology and extraordinary flood events. J. Hydrol. 96, 79-99.
59. Sigafoos R.S. (1961). Vegetation in relation to flood frequency near Washington, DC. US Geological Survey prof, pap., 424C, 248-249. Washington, DC.
60. Helley E.J., Valmore C. and LaMarche (Jr) (1968). December 1964, a 400-year flood in northern California. US Geological Survey prof. pap., 600D, 34-37. Washington, DC.
61. Birkeland P.W. (1968). Mean velocities and boulder transport during Tahoe-age floods of the Truckee River, California-Nevada. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 79, 137-142.
62. Helley E.J. (1969). Field measurement of the initiation of large bed particle motion in Blue Creek near Klamath, California. US Geological Surv. prof. pap., 562G, 1-19, Washington, DC.
63. Novak I.D. (1973). Predicting coarse sediment transport: the Hjulstrom curve revisited. In Fluvial Geomorphology, ed. M.E. Morisawa, pp. 13-25. Proc. 4th Binghamton Geomorphology symposium, Binghamton, New York.
64. Baker V.R. and Ritter D.F. (1975). Competence of rivers to transport coarse bedload material. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 86, 975-978.
65. Church M. and Gilbert R. (1975). Proglacial fluvial and lacustrine environments. In Glaciofluvial and Glaciolacustrine Sedimentation, eds A.V. Jopling and B.C. McDonald, pp. 22-100. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication, 23, Tulsa.
66. Shaw J. and Kellerhals R. (1977). Palaeohydraulic interpretation of antidune bedforms with applications to antidunes in gravels. J. Sediment. Petrol. 47, 257-266.
67. Bradley W.C. and Mears A.I. (1980). Calculations of flows needed to transport coarse fraction of Boulder Creek alluvium at Boulder, Colorado: summary. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 91, 135-138.
68. Carling P.A. (1983). Thresholds of coarse-sediment transport in broad and narrow natural streams. Earth Surface Process. Landforms 13, 355-367.
69. Costa J.E. (1983). Paleohydraulic reconstruction of flash-flood peaks from boulder deposits in the Colorado Front Range. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 94, 986-1004.
70. Maizels J.K. (1983). Palaeovelocity and palaeodischarge determination for coarse gravel deposits. In Background to Palaeohydrology, ed. K.J. Gregory, pp. 101-139. John Wiley, New York.
71. Williams G.P. (1983). Paleohydrological methods and some examples from Swedish fluvial environments: I. Cobble and boulder deposits. Geografisika Annaler 65A, 227-243.
72. Komar P.D. (1988). Sediment transport by floods. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 97-111. John Wiley, New York.
73. O'Connor J.E. (1993). Hydrology, hydraulics, and geomorphology of the Bonneville Flood. Geol. Soc. Am. special paper 274.
74. Komar P.D. and Carling P.A. (1991). Grain sorting in gravel-bed streams and the choices of particle sizes for flow-competence evaluations. Sedimentology 38, 489-502.
75. McDonald B.C. and Day T.J. (1978). An experimental flume study on the formation of transverse ribs. Geol. Surv. Canada pap., 78-IA, 441-451.
76. Nummedal D. (1973). Paleoflow characteristics of a late Cretaceous river in Utah from analysis of sedimentary structures in the Ferron sandstone: a discussion. J. Sediment. Petrol. 43, 1176-1180.
77. Costa J.E. (1984). Physical geomorphology of debris flows. In Developments and Applications of Geomorphology, eds J.E. Costa and P.J. Fleisher, pp. 268-317. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
78. Fisher R.V. (1971). Features of coarse-grained high concentration fluids and their deposits. J. Sediment. Petrol. 41, 916-927.
79. Webb R.H., Pringle P.T. and Rink G.A. (1987). Debris flows from tributaries of the Colorado River, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. US Geol. Surv. open-file report, 87-118.
80. Stewart J.H. and LaMarche V.C. (1967). Erosion and deposition in the flood of December 1964 on Coffee Creek, Trinity County, California. US Geol. Surv. prof. pap. 422K, Washington, DC.
81. Costa J.E. (1978). Colorado Big Thompson flood: geologic evidence of a rare hydrologic event. Geology 6, 617-620.
82. Sigafoos R.S. (1964). Botanical evidence of floods and flood-plain deposition. US Geol. Surv. prof. pap. 485A.
83. Hupp C.R. (1988). Plant ecological aspects of flood geomorphology and palaeoflood history. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp.335-356. John Wiley, New York.
84. White P.S. (1979). Pattern, process, and natural disturbance in vegetation. Bot. Rev. 45, 229-299.
85. Hupp C.R. and Osterkamp W.R. (1985). Bottomland vegetation distribution along Passage Creek, Virginia, in relation to fluvial landforms. Ecology 66, 670-681.
86. Hupp C.R. (1987). Botanical evidence of floods and palaeoflood history. In Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, ed. V.P. Singh, pp.355-369. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
87. Lilly M.A. (1977). An assessment of the dendrochronological potential of indigenous trees in South Africa. Environmental studies occasional paper 18. Dept. Geographical and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
88. February E.C. (1994). Rainfall reconstruction using wood charcoal from two archaeological sites in South Africa. Quat. Res. 42, 100-107.
89. Tyson P.D. (1986). Climatic Change and Variability in Southern Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town.
90. Helley E.J. and LaMarche V.C. (1973). Historic flood information for northern California streams from geological and botanical evidence. US Geol. Surv. prof. pap. 485E, Washington, DC.
91. Harrison S.S. and Reid J.R. (1967). A flood frequency curve based on tree-scar data. Proc. North Dakota Acad. Sci. 21, 23-33.
92. Gottesfeld A.S. (1996). British Columbia flood scars: maximum flood-stage indicators. Geomorphology 14, 319-325.
93. Sigafoos R.S. and Sigafoos M.D. (1966). Flood history told by tree growth. Nat. Hist. 50, 50-55.
94. Baker V.R. (1989). Magnitude and frequency of palaeofloods. In Floods: Hydrological, Sedimentological and Geomorphological, eds K. Beven and P. Carling, pp. 171-183. John Wiley, Chichester.
95. Kochel R.C., Baker V.R. and Patton P.C. (1982). Paleohydrology of southwestern Texas. Water Resourc. Res. 18, 1165-1183.
96. Baker V.R. (1983). Paleoflood hydrologic techniques for the extension of streamflow records. In Improving Estimates from Flood Studies, pp. 18-23. Transportation Research Record 922, Transportation Research Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC.
97. Kochel R.C. (1988). Extending stream records with slackwater paleoflood hydrology: examples from west Texas. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 377-391. John Wiley, New York.
98. Webb R.H., O'Connor J.E. and Baker V.R. (1988). Paleohydrologic reconstruction of flood frequency on the Escalante River, south-central Utah. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 403-418, John Wiley, New York.
99. Bretz J.H. (1929). Valley deposits immediately east of the Channeled Scablands of Washington. J. Geol. 37, 393-427.
100. Stewart J.E. and Bodhaine G.L (1961). Floods in the Skagit River basin, Washington. US Geol. Surv. water supply pap. 1527.
101. Baker V.R. (1973). Paleohydrology and sedimentology of Lake Missoula flooding in eastern Washington. Geol. Soc. Am., special paper 144.
102. Bouma A.H. (1962). Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits: a Graphic Approach to Fades Interpretation. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
103. Patton P.C., Baker V.R. and Kochel R.C. (1979). Slack-water deposits: a geomorphic technique for the interpretation of fluvial paleohydrology. In Adjustments of the Fluvial System, eds D.P. Rhodes and G.P. Williams, pp. 225-253. George Allen & Unwin, Boston.
104. Kochel R.C. and Baker V.R. (1982). Paleoflood hydrology. Science 215, 353-361.
105. Baker V.R., Kochel R.C., Patton P.C. and Pickup G. (1983). Palaeohydrologic analysis of Holocene flood slackwater sediments. Int. Ass. Sedimentologists, special publication 6, 229-239.
106. Baker V.R., Pickup G. and Polach H.A. (1983). Desert palaeofloods in central Australia. Nature 301, 502-504.
107. Kochel R.C. (1984). Paleofloods in southwest Texas. Eos 65, 891.
108. Patton P.C. and Handsman R.G. (1984). Paleoflood record for the Housatonic River basin, western Connecticut. Eos 65, 891.
109. Ely L.L. and Baker V.R. (1985). Reconstructing paleoflood hydrology with slackwater deposits: Verde River, Arizona. Phys. Geogr. 6, 103-126.
110. Ely L.L., O'Connor J.E. and Baker V.R. (1988). Paleoflood hydrology of the Salt and Verde Rivers, Central Arizona, In A Reclamation Project: the Changing Times, pp. 3-1-3-35. Eighth annual USCOLD (US Committee on Large Dams), Phoenix.
111. Baker V.R., Ely L.L., Enzel Y., Kale V.S., Martinez-Goytre J., McCord V.A., Melis T.S., O'Connor J.E., Smith S.S., Stevens L.E., Webb R.H. and Wohl E.E. (1992). Paleoflood hydrology of the southern Colorado Plateau. Field trip guidebook, Flagstaff, Arizona to Las Vegas, Nevada. ALPHA (Arizona Laboratory for Paleohydrological and Hydroclimatological Analysis) contrib. no. 12.
112. Zawada P.K. and Hattingh J. (1994). Studies on the palaeoflood hydrology of South African rivers. S. Afr. J. Sci. 90, 567-568.
113. Kochel R.C. and Ritter D.F. (1987). Implications of flume experiments for the interpretation of slackwater paleoflood sediments. In Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, ed. V.P. Singh, pp. 371-390. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
114. Baker V.R. and Kochel R.C. (1988). Flood sedimentation in bedrock fluvial systems. In Flood Geomorphology, ed V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 123-137. John Wiley, New York.
115. Pilcher J.R. (1991). Radiocarbon dating. In Quaternary Dating Methods - a User's Guide, eds P.L. Smart and P.D. Frances, pp. 16-36. Quaternary Research Association Technical Guide No. 4, Cambridge.
116. Patton P.C. and Baker V.R. (1977). Geomorphic response of central Texas stream channels to catastrophic rainfall and runoff. In Geomorphology of Arid and Semi-arid Regions, ed. D.O. Doehring, pp. 189-217. Publications in Geomorphology, Binghamton, New York.
117. Pierzynski G.M., Sims J.T. and Vance G.F. (1994). Soils and Environmental Quality. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.
118. Moss J.H. and Kochel R.C. (1978). Unexpected geomorphic effects of the Hurricane Agnes storm and flood, Conestoga drainage basin, south-eastern Pennsylvania. J. Geol. 86, 1-11.
119. Baker V.R., Pickup G. and Polach H.A. (1985). Radiocarbon dating of flood events, Katherine Gorge, Northern Territory, Australia. Geology 13, 344-347.
120. Baker V.R., Pickup G. and Webb R.H. (1987). Paleoflood hydrologic analysis at ungaged sites, central and northern Australia. In Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, ed. V.P. Singh, pp. 325-338. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
121. Enzel Y., Ely L.L., Martinez-Goytre J. and Vivian R.G. (1994). Paleofloods and a dam-failure flood on the Virgin River, Utah and Arizona. J. Hydrol. 153, 291-315.
122. Hattingh J. and Zawada P.K. (1995). Palaeoflood hydrology of the Gamtoos and Sundays rivers in the eastern Cape. Southern African Society for Quaternary Research (SASQUA), XII Biennial Conference, Abstracts, Cape Town.
123. Dalrymple T. and Benson M.A. (1967). Measurement of peak discharge by the slope-area method. Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the US Geol. Surv. Book 3, chap. A2, 1-12.
124. Kovács Z. (1981). Documentation of the January 1981 floods in the south-western Cape. Dept. Water Affairs and Forestry technical report, TR 116, Pretoria.
125. Chow V.T. (1959). Open-channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Singapore.
126. Feldman A.D. (1981). HEC models for water resources system simulation-theory and experience. Adv. Hydrosci. 12, 297-423.
127. O'Connor J.E. and Webb R.H. (1988). Hydraulic modeling for paleoflood analysis. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 393-402. John Wiley, New York.
128. Jarrett R.D. (1987). Errors in slope-area computations of peak discharges in mountain streams. J. Hydrol. 96, 53-67.
129. Patton P.C. and Dibble D.S. (1982). Archeologic and geomorphic evidence for the paleohydrologic record of the Pecos River in west Texas. Am. J. Sci. 282, 97-121.
130. O'Connor J.E., Webb R.H. and Baker V.R. (1986). Paleohydrology of pool-and-riffle pattern development: Boulder Creek, Utah. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 97, 410-420.
131. Barnes H.H. (1967). Roughness characteristics of natural channels. US Geol. Surv. Water Supply paper, 1849.
132. Du Plessis D.B. and Dunne P. (1984). General field and office procedures for indirect discharge measurements. Division of Hydrology, Department of Environment Affairs, Flood Studies Section (internal report), Pretoria.
133. Wohl E.E. (1988). Thermoluminescence dating of Quaternary fluvial sands, East Alligator River, Australia. Geol. Soc. Am. abstracts with programs 20, A53.
134. Patton P.C., Pickup G. and Price D.M. (1993). Holocene paleofloods of the Ross River, central Australia. Quat. Res. 40, 201-212.
135. Bourke M.C. (1995). Geomorphic effects of Holocene super floods on the Todd River, semi-arid central Australia. International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), XIV International Congress, Abstracts, Berlin.
136. 14C in dating fluvial deposits. Quat. Res. 38, 196-204.
137. 14C ages for recent deposits. Nature 271, 739-741.
138. Hedges R.E.M. and Gowlett J.A.J. (1986). Radiocarbon dating by accelerator mass spectrometry. Sci. Am. 254, 82-89.
139. Wintle A.G. (1990). A review of current research on TL dating of loess. Quat. Sci. Rev. 9, 385-397.
140. Wintle A.G. (1993). Luminescence dating of aeolian sands: an overview. In The Dynamics and Environmental Context of Aeolian Sedimentary Systems, ed. K. Pye, pp. 49-58. Geol. Soc. special publication, no. 72. London.
141. Wintle A.G. (1992). Luminescence signals from sediments. NERC News (National Environmental Research Council), July 14-16, London.
142. Wintle A.G. (1987). Thermoluminescence dating of loess. In Loess and the Environment, ed. M. Pécsi, pp. 103-115. Catena supplement 9.
143. Edwards S.R. (1993). Luminescence dating of sand from the Kelso Dunes, California. In The Dynamics and Environmental Context of Aeolian Sedimentary Systems, ed. K. Pye, pp. 59-68. Geol. Soc. special publication, no. 72, London.
144. Forman S.L. and Ennis G. (1992). Limitations of thermoluminescence to date waterlain sediments from glaciated fiord environments of western Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Quat. Sci. Rev. 11, 61-70.
145. Aitken M.J. (1992). Optical dating. Quat. Sci. Rev. 11, 127-131.
146. Ervanne H., Jungner H. and Räsänen M. (1992). Dating of fluvial sediments from the Amazon lowland in Peru. Quat. Sci. Rev. 11, 71-73.
147. Walling D.E., Quine T.A. and He Q. (1992). Investigating contemporary rates of floodplain sedimentation. In Lowland Rivers: Geomorphological Perspectives, eds P.A. Carling and G.E. Petts, pp. 165-184. John Wiley, Chichester.
148. Baker V.R and Costa J.E. (1987). Flood power. In Catastrophic Flooding, eds L. Mayer and D. Nash, pp. 1-21. Allen & Unwin, Boston.
149. Baker V.R. (1988). Flood erosion. In Flood Geomorphology, eds V.R. Baker, R.C. Kochel and P.C. Patton, pp. 81-95. John Wiley, New York.
150. Zawada P.K. (in prep.)
151. Smith A.M. (1991). Extreme palaeofloods: their climatic significance and the chances of floods of similar magnitude recurring. S. Afr. J. Sci. 87, 219-220.
152. Van Bladeren D. (1992). Historical flood documentation series no. 1: Natal and Transkei, 1848-1989. Dept. Water Affairs and Forestry technical report, TR 147, Pretoria.
153. Van Bladeren D. (1993). A historical perspective on flood frequencies in South Africa. Proc. 6th South African National Hydrological Symposium, Pietermaritzburg, pp. 359-366.
154. Stedinger J.R. and Conn T.A. (1986). The value of historical and paleoflood information in flood frequency analysis. Water Resource Res. 22, 785-793.
155. Stedinger J.R. and Baker V.R. (1987). Surface water hydrology: historical and paleoflood information. Rev. Geophys. 25, 119-124.
156. Stedinger J.R., Therivel R. and Baker V.R. (1988). The use and value of historical and paleoflood information in flood frequency analyses. pp. 1-31. Eighth annual USCOLD (US Committee on Large Dams), Phoenix.
157. Enzel Y., Ely L.L., House P.K., Baker V.R., Duckstein L. and Weber J. (1991). The contribution of long-term records of hydrologic extremes to risk analysis. In Water Resources Engineering Risk Assessment, ed. J. Ganoulis, pp. 97-104. NATO Advanced Study Institute (ASI) Series, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
158. National Research Council (1988). Estimating Probabilities of Extreme Floods. Methods and Recommended Research. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
159. Baker V.R., Ely L.L. and O'Connor J.E. (1990). Palaeoflood hydrology and design decision for high-risk projects. In Hydraulic Engineering, Proc. 1990 National Conf., eds H.H. Chang and J.C. Hill, pp. 433-438. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
160. Baker V.R., Ely L.L., O'Connor J.E. and Partridge J.B. (1987). Paleoflood hydrology and design applications. In Regional Flood Frequency Analysis, ed. V.P. Singh, pp. 339-353. D. Reidel, Dordrecht.
161. Ely L.L., Enzel Y., O'Connor J.E. and Baker V.R. (1991). Palaeoflood records and risk assessment: examples from the Colorado River Basin. In Water Resources Engineering Risk Assessment, ed. J. Ganoulis, pp. 105-112. NATO Advanced Study Institute (ASI) Series, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
162. Baker V.R., Demsey K.A., Ely L.L., Fuller J.E., House P.K., O'Connor J.E., Onken J.A., Pearthree PA. and Vincent K.R. (1990). Application of geological information to Arizona flood hazard management. Hydrology of arid lands. Proc. Int. Symp., San Diego, California, pp. 621-626. American Society of Civil Engineering.
163. Houghton J. (1994). Global Warming: the Complete Briefing. Lyon Publishing, Oxford.
164. Alexander W.J.R. (1995). Detection of climate change. Global environmental change: implications for southern Africa. Regional Conference, Programme and Abstracts, pp. 50-52. CSIR, Pretoria,
165. Tyson P.D. (1993). Recent developments in the modelling of the future climate of southern Africa. S. Afr J. Sci. 89, 494-505.
166. Ely L.L. and Baker V.R. (1990). Large floods and climate change in the southwestern United States. In Hydraulics/Hydrology of Arid Lands, ed. R.H. French, pp. 361-366. Proc. Int. Symp., American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
167. Ely L.L., Enzel Y., Baker V.R. and Cayan D.R. (1993). A 5000-year record of extreme floods and climate change in the southwestern United States. Science 262, 410-412.
168. Wells L.E. (1990). Holocene history of the El Niño phenomenon as recorded in flood sediments of northern coastal Peru. Geology 18, 1134-1137.
169. Chatters J.C. and Hoover K.A. (1986). Changing Holocene flooding frequencies on the Columbia River, Washington. Quat. Res. 26, 309-320.
170. Knox J.C. (1984). Fluvial responses to small-scale climate changes. In Developments and Applications of Geomorphology, eds J.E. Costa and P.J. Fleisher, pp. 318-342. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
171. Knox J.C. (1993). Large increases in flood magnitude in response to modest changes in climate. Nature 361, 430-432.
172. Schulze R.E. (1990). Climate change and hydrological response in southern Africa: heading towards the future. S. Afr. J. Sci. 86, 373-381.
173. Meko D., Hughes M. and Stockton C. (1991). Climate change and climate variability: the paleo record. In Managing Water Resources in the West Under Conditions of Climate Uncertainty, pp. 71-100. National Academy Press, Washington, DC,
174. Ely L.L., Enzel Y., Baker V.R., Kale V.S. and Mishra S. (1996). Changes in the magnitude and frequency of late Holocene monsoon floods on the Narmada River, central India. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 108, 1134-1148.
175. Smith A.M. (1992). Palaeoflood hydrology of the lower Umgeni River from a reach south of the Inanda Dam, Natal. S. Afr. geogr. J. 74, 63-68.
176. Smith A.M. (1992). Holocene palaeoclimatic trends from palaeoflood analysis. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 97, 235-240.
177. Boshoff R, Kovács Z., van Bladeren D. and Zawada P.K. (1993). Potential benefits from palaeoflood investigations in South Africa. J. S. Afr. Inst. civ. Engn. 35, 25-26.