Atrial Fibrillation: Restoration and Maintenance of Sinus Rhythm and Indications for Anticoagulation Therapy

Annals of Internal Medicine

Volumn 125, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 311-323

  Golzari, Houtan ^a,b   Cebul, Randall D ^a   Bahler, Robert C ^a  

^a METROHEALTH MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b MetroHealth Medical Center ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT;

ALGORITHM; CARDIOVERSION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COHORT ANALYSIS; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; REVIEW; THROMBOEMBOLISM;

ALGORITHMS; ANTICOAGULANTS; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; COHORT STUDIES; ELECTRIC COUNTERSHOCK; HUMANS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS; THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 0030586455     PISSN: 00034819     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7326/0003-4819-125-4-199608150-00010     Document Type: Review

References (205)

1. Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Vaziri SM, D'Agostino RB, Belanger AJ, Wolf PA. Independent risk factors for atrial fibrillation in a population-based cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA. 1994;271:840-4.
2. Bialy D, Lehmann MH, Schumacher DN, Steinman RT, Meissner MD. Hospitalization for arrhythmias in the United States: importance of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992;19:41A.
3. Wolf PA, Dawber TR, Thomas HE Jr, Kannel WB. Epidemiologic assessment of chronic atrial fibrillation and risk of stroke: the Framingham study. Neurology. 1978;28:973-7.
4. Flegel KM, Shipley MJ, Rose G. Risk of stroke in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. Lancet. 1987;1:526-9.
5. Feinberg WM, Seeger JF, Carmody RF, Anderson DC, Hart RG, Pearce LA. Epidemiologic features of asymptomatic cerebral infarction in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Arch Intern Med. 1990;150:2340-4.
6. Petersen P, Godtfredsen J. Embolic complications in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Stroke. 1986;17:622-6.
7. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:1449-57.
8. Brand FN, Abbott RD, Kannel WB, Wolf PA. Characteristics and prognosis of lone atrial fibrillation. 30-year follow-up in the Framingham Study. JAMA. 1985;254:3449-53.
9. Kopecky SL, Gersh BJ, McGoon MD, Whisnant JP, Holmes DR Jr, Ilstrup DM, et al. The natural history of lone atrial fibrillation. A population-based study over three decades. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:669-74.
10. Davis PH, Dambrosia JM, Schoenberg BS, Schoenberg DG, Pritchard DA, Lilienfeld AM, et al. Risk factors for ischemic stroke: a prospective study in Rochester, Minnesota. Ann Neurol. 1987;22:319-27.
11. Chesebro JH, Fuster V, Halperin JL. Atrial fibrillation - risk marker for stroke [Editorial]. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1556-8.
12. Kalman JM, Tonkin AM. Atrial fibrillation: epidemiology and the risk and prevention of stroke. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1992;15:1332-46.
13. Sun JP, Dawson NV, Hsiue IL, Bahler RC. Normal values for Doppler echocardiographic intracardiac flow velocities in an adult Chinese population: the relation between age and diastolic filling. Journal of Cardiovascular Ultrasonography. 1988;7:247-56.
14. Tischler MD, Lee TH, McAndrew KA, Sax PE, Sutton MS, Lee RT. Clinical, echocardiographic and Doppler correlates of clinical instability with onset of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1990;66:721-4.
15. Atwood JE, Myers J, Sullivan M, Forbes S, Friis R, Pewen W, et al. Maximal exercise testing and gas exchange in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11:508-13.
16. Ueshima K, Myers J, Ribisl PM, Atwood JE, Morris CK, Kawaguchi T, et al. Hemodynamic determinants of exercise capacity in chronic atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J. 1993;125(5 Pt 1):1301-5.
17. Atwood JE, Myers J, Sullivan M, Forbes S, Sandhu S, Callaham P, et al. The effect of cardioversion on maximal exercise capacity in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J. 1989;118(5 Pt 1):913-8.
18. Lipkin DP, Frenneaux M, Stewart R, Joshi J, Lowe T, McKenna WJ. Delayed improvement in exercise capacity after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Br Heart J. 1988;59:572-7.
19. Van Gelder IC, Crijns HJ, Blanksma PK, Landsman ML, Posma JL, Van Den Berg MP, et al. Time course of hemodynamic changes and improvement of exercise tolerance after cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation unassociated with cardiac valve disease. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72:560-6.
20. Resnekov L. Hemodynamic studies before and after electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation and flutter to sinus rhythm. Br Heart J. 1967;29:700-8.
21. Shapiro W, Klein G. Alterations in cardiac function immediately after electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation to normal sinus rhythm. Circulation. 1968;38:1074-84.
22. Phillips E, Levine SA. Auricular fibrillation without other evidence of heart disease. Am J Med. 1949;7:478-89.
23. Packer DL, Bardy GH, Worley SJ, Smith MS, Cobb FR, Coleman RE, et al. Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy: a reversible form of left ventricular dysfunction. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57:563-70.
24. McLaran CJ, Gersh BJ, Sugrue DD, Hammill SC, Seward JB, Holmes DR Jr. Tachycardia induced myocardial dysfunction. A reversible phenomenon? Br Heart J. 1985;53:323-7.
25. Gillette PC, Smith RT, Garson A Jr, Mullins CE, Gutgesell HP, Goh TH, et al. Chronic supraventricular tachycardia. A curable cause of congestive cardiomyopathy. JAMA. 1985;253:391-2.
26. Moreira DA, Shepard RB, Waldo AL. Chronic rapid atrial pacing to maintain atrial fibrillation: use to permit control of ventricular rate in order to treat tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1989; 12:761-75.
27. Heinz G, Siostrzonek P, Kreiner G, Gössinger H. Improvement in left ventricular systolic function after successful radiofrequency His bundle ablation for drug refractory, chronic atrial fibrillation and recurrent atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:489-92.
28. Grogan M, Smith HC, Gersh BJ, Wood DL. Left ventricular dysfunction due to atrial fibrillation in patients initially believed to have idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:1570-3.
29. Sarembock IJ, Horak AR, Commerford PJ. Tachycardia-induced reversible left ventricular dysfunction. A report of 2 cases. S Afr Med J. 1988;73:484-5.
30. Kieny JR, Sacrez A, Facello A, Arbogast R, Bareiss P, Roul G, et al. Increase in radionuclide left ventricular ejection fraction after cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 1992;13:1290-5.
31. Kasper EK, Agema WR, Hutchins GM, Deckers JW, Hare JM, Baughman KL. The causes of dilated cardiomyopathy: a clinicopathologic review of 673 consecutive patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:586-90.
32. Kannel WB, Abbott RD, Savage DD, McNamara PM. Coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation: the Framingham study. Am Heart J. 1983;106: 389-96.
33. Lake FR, Cullen KJ, de Klerk NH, McCall MG, Rosman DL. Atrial fibrillation and mortality in an elderly population. Aust N Z J Med. 1989;19:321-6.
34. Somberg JC, Torres V, Gotlieb S, Butler B, Levitt B, Miura DS. The enhancement of myocardial vulnerability by atrial fibrillation [Abstract]. Circulation. 1983;68:111-56.
35. Borggrefe M, Candinas R, Hief C, Karbenn U, Chen X, Haverkamp W, et al. Effect of atrial fibrillation on inducibility of VT/VF during programmed ventricular stimulation [Abstract]. Circulation. 1991;84:11-412.
36. Meijler FL, van der Tweel I, Herbschleb JN, Hauer RN, Robles deMedina EO. Role of atrial fibrillation and atrioventricular conduction (including Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome) in sudden death. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985; 5(6Suppl):17B-22B.
37. Thomson GW. Quinidine as a cause of sudden death. Circulation. 1956; 14:757-65.
38. Falk RH. Proarrhythmia in patients treated for atrial fibrillation or flutter. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:141-50.
39. Lown B, Amarasingham R, Neuman J. New method for terminating cardiac arrhythmias. JAMA. 1962;182:548-55.
40. Lown B, Neuman J, Amarasingham R, Berkovits BV. Comparison of alternating current with direct current electroshock across the closed chest. Am J Cardiol. 1962;10:223-33.
41. Lown B. Electrical reversion of cardiac arrhythmias. Br Heart J. 1967;29:469-89.
42. DeSilva RA, Graboys TB, Podrid PJ, Lown B. Cardioversion and defibrillation. Am Heart J. 1980;100(6 Pt 1):881-95.
43. Scott ME, Geddes JS, Patterson GC. The long term prognosis of atrial fibrillation following direct current conversion. Ulster Med J. 1968;37:155-61.
44. McCarthy C, Varghese PJ, Barritt DW. Prognosis of atrial arrhythmias treated by electrical counter shock therapy. A three-year follow-up. Br Heart J. 1969;31:496-500.
45. Castellanos A Jr, Lemberg L, Gosselin A, Fonseca EJ. Evaluation of countershock treatment of atrial flutter. Arch Intern Med. 1965;115:426-33.
46. Bjerkelund CJ, Orning OM. The efficacy of anticoagulant therapy in preventing embolism related to D.C. electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1969;23:208-16.
47. Karlson BW, Torstensson I, Abjorn C, Jansson SO, Peterson LE. Disopyramide in the maintenance of sinus rhythm after electroconversion of atrial fibrillation. A placebo-controlled one-year follow-up study. Eur Heart J. 1988;9:284-90.
48. Härtel G, Louhija A, Konttinen A. Disopyramide in the prevention of recurrence of atrial fibrillation after electroconversion. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1974;15:551-5.
49. Byrne-Quinn E, Wing AJ. Maintenance of sinus rhythm after DC reversion of atrial fibrillation. A double-blind controlled trial of long-acting quinidine bisulfate. Br Heart J. 1970;32:370-6.
50. Härtel G, Louhija A, Konttinen A, Halonen PI. Value of quinidine in maintenance of sinus rhythm after electric conversion of atrial fibrillation. Br Heart J. 1970;32:57-60.
51. Hillestad L, Bjerkelund C, Dale J, Maltau J, Storstein O. Quinidine in maintenance of sinus rhythm after electroconversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. A controlled clinical study. Br Heart J. 1971;33:518-21.
52. Södermark T, Edhag O, Sjögren A, Jonsson B, Olsson A, Orö L, et al. Effect of quinidine on maintaining sinus rhythm after conversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter. A multicentre study from Stockholm. Br Heart J. 1975; 37:486-92.
53. Hall JI, Wood DR. Factors affecting cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias with special reference to quinidine. Br Heart J. 1968;30:84-90.
54. Gunning JF, Kristinsson A, Miller G, Saunders K. Long-term follow-up of direct current cardioversion after cardiac surgery with special reference to quinidine. Br Heart J. 1970;32:462-6.
55. Paulk EA Jr, Hurst JW. Clinical problems of cardioversion. Am Heart J. 1965;70:248-74.
56. Lindsay J Jr. Pulmonary edema following cardioversion. Am Heart J. 1967; 74:434-5.
57. Sutton RB, Tsagaris TJ. Pulmonary edema following direct current cardioversion. Chest. 1970;57:191-4.
58. Friedberg CK, Cohn LJ, Donoso E. Arrhythmias following external direct-current shock [Abstract]. Circulation. 1965;31/32:II-89.
59. Shaver JA, Kroetz FW, Tenicela R, Lancaster JF, Leonard JJ. Postcardioversion ventricular tachycardia [Abstract]. Am J Cardiol. 1965;15:146-7.
60. Castellanos A Jr, Lemberg L, Gilmore H 3d, Johnson D. Countershock exposed quinidine syncope. Am J Med Sci. 1965;250:254-60.
61. Yigitbasi Ö, Nalbantgil I. Ventricular fibrillation: a delayed complication of direct current shock. Cardiology. 1967;51:307-9.
62. Selzer A, Wray HW. Quinidine syncope. Circulation. 1964;30:17-26.
63. Chun PK, Davia JE, Donohue DJ. ST-segment elevation with elective DC cardioversioh. Circulation. 1981;63:220-4.
64. Das G, Eaton J. Pacemaker malfunction following transthoracic countershock. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1981;4:487-90.
65. Levine PA, Barold SS, Fletcher RD, Talbot P. Adverse acute and chronic effects of electrical defibrillation and cardioversion on implanted unipolar cardiac pacing systems. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1983;1:1413-22.
66. Altamura G, Bianconi L, Lo Bianco F, Toscano S, Ammirati F, Pandozi AC, et al. Transthoracic DC shock may represent serious hazard in pacemaker dependent patients. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1996;18(1 Pt 2):194-8.
67. Grogono AW. Anesthesia for atrial defibrillation. Effect of quinidine on muscular relaxation. Lancet. 1963;2:1039-40.
68. Lévy S, Lacombe P, Cointe R, Bru P. High energy transcatheter cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12:514-8.
69. Lévy S, Lauribe P, Dolla E, Kou W, Kadish A, Calkins H, et al. A randomized comparison of external and internal cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 1992;86:1415-20.
70. Lévy S. Direct current cardioversion of established atrial fibrillation. Clin Cardiol. 1992;15:445-9.
71. Kumagai K, Yamanouchi Y, Hiroki T, Arakawa K. Effects of transcatheter cardioversion on chronic lone atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1991;14(11 Pt 1):1571-5.
72. Cooper RA, Alferness CA, Smith WM, Ideker RE. Internal cardioversion of atrial fibrillation in sheep. Circulation. 1993;87:1673-86.
73. Murgatroyd FD, Slade AK, Sopher SM, Rowland E, Ward DE, Camm AJ. Efficacy and tolerability of transvenous low energy cardioversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:1347-53.
74. Davies P, Leak D, Oram S. Quinidine-induced syncope. Br Med J. 1965; 2:517-20.
75. Holzman D, Brown MG. The use of quinidine in established auricular fibrillation and flutter. Am J Med Sci. 1951;222:644-52.
76. Falk RH, Knowlton AA, Bernard SA, Gotlieb NE, Battinelli NJ. Digoxin for converting recent-onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. A randomized, double-blinded trial. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:503-6.
77. Detsky AS, Sackett DL. When was a negative clinical trial big enough? How many patients you needed depends on what you found. Arch Intern Med. 1985;145:709-12.
78. Meijler FL. An account of digitalis and atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;5(5 Suppl A):60A-8A.
79. Rawles JM, Metcalfe MJ, Jennings K. Time of occurrence, duration, and ventricular rate of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: the effect of digoxin. Br Heart J. 1990;63:225-7.
80. Kowey PR, DeSilva RA, Lown B. Sustained atrial fibrillation as a rhythm of choice [Abstract]. Circulation. 1979:60(II):II-253.
81. Coumel P. Clinical approach to paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Clin Cardiol. 1990;13:209-12.
82. Coumel P, Leclercq JF, Attuel P. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. In: Kulbertus HE, Olsson SB, Schlepper M, eds. Atrial fibrillation. Kiruna, Sweden: Mölndal; 1982:158-75.
83. Falk RH, Leavitt JI. Digoxin for atrial fibrillation: a drug whose time has gone? Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:573-5.
84. Kopelman HA, Horowitz LN. Efficacy and toxicity of amiodarone for the treatment of supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1989; 31:355-66.
85. Mostow ND, Vrobel TR, Noon D, Rakita L. Rapid control of refractory atrial tachyarrhythmias with high-dose oral amiodarone. Am Heart J. 1990; 120(6 Pt 1):1356-63.
86. Santos AL, Aleixo AM, Landeiro J, Luis AS. Conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm with amiodarone. Acta Med Port. 1979;1:15-23.
87. Gold RL, Haffajee CI, Charos G, Sloan K, Baker S, Alpert JS. Amiodarone for refractory atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57:124-7.
88. Rowland E, McKenna WJ, Krikler DM. Amiodarone for the conversion of established atrial fibrillation and flutter. Brit J Clin Pract Symp Suppl. 1986; 44:39-41.
89. Singh S, Saini RK, DiMarco J, Kluger J, Gold R, Chen YW. Efficacy and safety of sotalol in digitalized patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. The Sotalol Study Group. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68:1227-30.
90. Halinen MO, Huttunen M, Paakkinen S, Tarssanen L. Comparison of sotalol with digoxin-quinidine for conversion of acute atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm (the Sotalol-Digoxin-Quinidine Trial). Am J Cardiol. 1995;76:495-8.
91. Capucci A, Lenzi T, Borlani G, Trisolino G, Binetti N, Cavazza M, et al. Effectiveness of loading oral flecainide for converting recent-onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm in patients without organic heart disease or with only systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol. 1992;70:69-72.
92. Crijns HJ, van Wijk LM, van Gilst WH, Kingma JH, van Gelder IC, Lie KI. Acute conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm: clinical efficacy of flecainide acetate. Comparison of two regimens. Eur Heart J. 1988;9:634-8.
93. Porterfield JG, Porterfield LM. Therapeutic efficacy and safety of oral propafenone for atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:114-6.
94. Capucci A, Boriani G, Rubino I, Della Casa S, Sanguinetti M, Magnani B. A controlled study on oral propafenone versus digoxin plus quinidine in converting recent onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Int J Cardiol. 1994; 43:305-13.
95. Capucci A, Boriani G, Botto GL, Lenzi T, Rubino I, Falcone C, et al. Conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation by a single oral loading dose of propafenone or flecainide. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:503-5.
96. Connolly SJ, Mulji AS, Hoffert DL, Davis C, Shragge BW. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of propafenone for treatment of atrial tachyarrhythmias after cardiac surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987;10:1145-8.
97. Suttorp MJ, Kingma JH, Jessurun ER, Lie-A-Huen L, van Hemel NM, Lie KI. The value of class IC antiarrhythmic drugs for acute conversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter to sinus rhythm. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;16:1722-7.
98. Boriani G, Capucci A, Lenzi T, Sanguinetti M, Magnani B. Propafenone for conversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation. A controlled comparison between oral loading dose and intravenous administration. Chest. 1995; 108:355-8.
99. Vita JA, Friedman PL, Cantillon C, Antman EM. Efficacy of intravenous propafenone for the acute management of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:1275-8.
100. Gavaghan TP, Keogh AM, Kelly RP, Campbell TJ, Thorburn C, Morgan JJ. Flecainide compared with a combination of digoxin and disopyramide for acute atrial arrhythmias after cardiopulmonary bypass. Br Heart J. 1988;60:497-501.
101. Wafa SS, Ward DE, Parker DJ, Camm AJ. Efficacy of flecainide acetate for atrial arrhythmias following coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:1058-64.
102. Suttorp MJ, Kingma JH, Lie-A-Huen L, Mast EG. Intravenous flecainide versus verapamil for acute conversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter to sinus rhythm. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:693-6.
103. Kondili A, Kastrati A, Popa Y. Comparative evaluation of verapamil, flecainide and propafenone for the acute conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1990;102:510-3.
104. Donovan KD, Dobb GJ, Coombs LJ, Lee KY, Weekes JN, Murdock G, et al. Reversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm by intravenous flecainide. Am J Cardiol. 1991;67:137-41.
105. Donovan KD, Power BM, Hockings BE, Dobb GJ, Lee KY. Intravenous flecainide versus amiodarone for recent-onset atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75:693-7.
106. Campbell TJ, Gavaghan TP, Morgan JJ. Intravenous sotalol for the treatment of atrial fibrillation and flutter after cardiopulmonary bypass. Comparison with disopyramide and digoxin in a randomised trial. Br Heart J. 1985; 54:86-90.
107. Cowan JC, Gardiner P, Reid DS, Newell DJ, Campbell RW. A comparison of amiodarone and digoxin in the treatment of atrial fibrillation complicating suspected acute myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1986;8:252-6.
108. Pilati G, Lenzi T, Trisolino G, Cavazza M, Binetti N, Villecco AS, et al. Amiodarone versus quinidine for conversion of recent onset atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Current Therapeutic Research. 1991;49:140-6.
109. McAlister HF, Luke RA, Whitlock RM, Smith WM. Intravenous amiodarone bolus versus oral quinidine for atrial flutter and fibrillation after cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1990;99:911-8.
110. Noc M, Stajer D, Horvat M. Intravenous amiodarone versus verapamil for acute conversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65:679-80.
111. Hou ZY, Chang MS, Chen CY, Tu MS, Lin SL, Chiang HT, et al. Acute treatment of recent-onset atrial fibrillation and flutter with a tailored dosing regimen of intravenous amiodarone. A randomized, digoxin-controlled study. Eur Heart J. 1995;16:521-8.
112. Platia EV, Michelson EL, Porterfield JK, Das G. Esmolol versus verapamil in the acute treatment of atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:925-9.
113. Madrid AH, Moro C, Marin-Huerta E, Mestre JL, Novo L, Costa A. Comparison of flecainide and procainamide in cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 1993;14:1127-31.
114. Hjelms E. Procainamide conversion of acute atrial fibrillation after open-heart surgery compared with digoxin treatment. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1992;26:193-6.
115. Campbell TJ, Morgan JJ. Treatment of atrial arrhythmias after cardiac surgery with intravenous disopyramide. Aust N Z J Med. 1980;10:644-9.
116. Toivonen LK, Nieminen MS, Manninen V, Frick MH. Conversion of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm by intravenous pirmenol. A placebo controlled study. Br Heart J. 1986;55:176-80.
117. Hillestad L, Dale J, Storstein O. Quinidine before direct current countershock. A controlled study. Br Heart J. 1972;34:139-42.
118. Wagner GS, McIntosh HD. The use of drugs in achieving successful DC cardioversion. Prog Cardiovac Dis. 1969;11:431-42.
119. Guarnieri T, Tomaselli G, Griffith LS, Brinker J. The interaction of antiarrhythmic drugs and the energy for cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1991;14:1007-12.
120. Normand JP, Legendre M, Kahn JC, Bourdarias JP, Mathivat A. Comparative efficacy of short-acting and long-acting quinidine for maintenance of sinus rhythm after electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation. Br Heart J. 1976;38:381-7.
121. Kennedy BM. Comparison of lidoflazine and quinidine in prophylactic treatment of arrhythmias. Br Heart J. 1977;39:540-6.
122. Woo KS, Kong SM. Disopyramide and quinidine in maintenance of sinus rhythm after electro-conversion [Abstract]. Circulation. 1980;62(Suppl III): 181.
123. Rasmussen K, Wang H, Fausa D. Comparative efficiency of quinidine and verapamil in the maintenance of sinus rhythm after DC conversion of atrial fibrillation. A controlled clinical trial. Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1981;645:23-8.
124. Boissel JP, Wolf E, Gillet J, Soubrane A, Cavallaro A, Mazoyer G, et al. Controlled trial of a long-acting quinidine for maintenance of sinus rhythm after conversion of sustained atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 1981;2:49-55.
125. Vitolo E, Tronci M, Larovere MT, Rumolo R, Morabito A. Amiodarone versus quinidine in the prophylaxis of atrial fibrillation. Acta Cardiol. 1981; 36:431-44.
126. Edhag O, Erhardt LR, Lundman T, Södermark T, Sjögren A. Verapamil and quinidine in maintaining sinus rhythm after electroconversion of atrial fibrillation. Opuscula Medica. 1982;27:22-4.
127. Lloyd EA, Gersh BJ, Forman R. The efficacy of quinidine and disopyramide in the maintenance of sinus rhythm after electroconversion from atrial fibrillation. A double-blind study comparing quinidine, disopyramide and placebo. S Afr Med J. 1984;65:367-9.
128. O'Keeffe DB, Nicholls DP, Morton P, Murtagh GJ, Scott ME. Maintenance of sinus rhythm after elective cardioversion from chronic stable atrial fibrillation: amiodarone compared with quinidine. Br Heart J. 1984;51:103.
129. Grande P, Sonne B, Pedersen A. A controlled study of digoxin and quinidine in patients DC reverted from atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm [Abstract]. Circulation. 1986;74(Suppl II):101.
130. Gustafsson KS, von Bahr C, Dahlqvist R, Edhag O. Long-term effects related to dose and concentration of disopyramide in atrial fibrillation [Abstract]. Circulation. 1986;74(Suppl II):101.
131. Rasmussen K, Andersen A, Abrahamsen AM, Overskeid K, Bathen J. Hecainide versus disopyramide in maintaining sinus rhythm following conversion of chronic atrial fibrillation [Abstract]. Eur Heart J. 1988;9(Suppl I):52.
132. Van Gelder IC, Crijns HJ, Van Gilst WH, Van Wijk LM, Hamer HP, Lie KI. Efficacy and safety of flecainide acetate in the maintenance of sinus rhythm after electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1989;64:1317-21.
133. Juul-Moller S, Edvardsson N, Rehnqvist-Ahlberg N. Sotalol versus quinidine for the maintenance of sinus rhythm after direct current conversion of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 1990;82:1932-9.
134. Touboul P, Aliot E, Brembilla-Perrot B. Flecainide in the prevention of atrial fibrillation after DC conversion: comparison with quinidine [Abstract]. Circulation. 1991;84(Suppl II):127.
135. Reimold SC, Cantillon CO, Friedman PL, Antman EM. Propafenone versus sotalol for suppression of recurrent symptomatic atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1993;71:558-63.
136. Podrid PJ. Class 1 antiarrhythmic agents for therapy of atrial fibrillation. Herz. 1993;18:9-19.
137. Wilson JS, Podrid PJ. Side effects from amiodarone. Am Heart J. 1991; 121(1 Pt 1):158-71.
138. Pritchett EL, McCarthy EA, Wilkinson WE. Propafenone treatment of symptomatic paroxysmal supraventricular arrhythmias. A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial in patients tolerating oral therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:539-44.
139. Connolly SJ, Hoffert DL. Usefulness of propafenone for recurrent paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:817-9.
140. Janssen J, Loomans L, Harink J, Taams M, Brunninkhuis L, van der Starre P, et al. Prevention and treatment of supraventricular tachycardia shortly after coronary artery bypass grafting: a randomized open trial. Angiology. 1986;37:601-9.
141. Kowey PR, Taylor JE, Rials SJ, Marindiak RA. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of prophylactic drug therapy in preventing supraventricular arrhythmia early after coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:963-5.
142. Ormerod OJ, McGregor CG, Stone DL, Wisbey C Petch MC. Arrhythmias after coronary bypass surgery. Br Heart J. 1984;51:618-21.
143. Middlekauff HR, Wiener I, Saxon LA, Stevenson WG. Low-dose amiodarone for atrial fibrillation: time for a prospective study? Ann Intern Med. 1992;116(12 Pt 1):1017-20.
144. Chun SH, Sager PT, Stevenson WG, Nademanee K, Middlekauff HR, Singh BN. Long-term efficacy of amiodarone for the maintenance of normal sinus rhythm in patients with refractory atrial fibrillation or flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1995;76:47-50
145. Gosselink AT, Crijns HJ, van Gelder IC, Hillige H, Wiesfeld AC, Lie KI. Low-dose amiodarone for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter. JAMA. 1992;267:3289-93.
146. Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:406-12.
147. Coplen SE, Antman EM, Berlin JA, Hewitt P, Chalmers TC. Efficacy and safety of quinidine therapy for maintenance of sinus rhythm after cardioversion. A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Circulation. 1990;82: 1106-16.
148. Hohnloser SH, Klingenheben T, Singh BN. Amiodarone-associated proarrhythmic effects. A review with special reference to torsade de pointes tachycardia. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:529-35.
149. Santini M, Alexidou G, Ansalone G, Cacciatore G, Cini R, Turitto G. Relation of prognosis in sick sinus syndrome to age, conduction defects and modes of permanent cardiac pacing. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65: 729-35.
150. Rosenqvist M, Brandt J, Schuller H. Long-term pacing in sinus node disease: effects of stimulation mode on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Am Heart J. 1988; 116(1 Pt 1):16-22.
151. Andersen HR, Thuesen L, Bagger JP, Vesterlund T, Thomsen PE. Prospective randomized trial of atrial versus ventricular pacing in sick-sinus syndrome. Lancet. 1994;344:1523-8.
152. Cox JL, Canavan TE, Schuessler RB, Cain ME, Lindsay BD, Stone C, et al. The surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. II. Intraoperative electrophysiologic mapping and description of the electrophysiologic basis of atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1991;101:406-26.
153. Ferguson TB Jr, Cox JL. Surgical therapy for atrial fibrillation. Herz. 1993; 18:39-50.
154. Feinberg MS, Waggoner AD, Kater KM, Cox JL, Perez JE. Echocardiographic automatic boundary detection to measure left atrial function after the maze procedure. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1995;8:139-48.
155. Kosakai Y, Kawaguchi AT, Isobe F, Sasako Y, Nakano K, Kito Y, et al. Modified maze procedure for patients with atrial fibrillation, undergoing simultaneous open heart surgery [Abstract]. Circulation. 1994;90:I-587.
156. Jatene MB, Sosa E, Tarasoutchi F, Monteiro AC, Salerno P, Souza LC, et al. Atrial fibrillation and mitral valve disease: concomitant surgical treatment with "maze" procedure [Abstract]. Circulation. 1994;90:I-595.
157. Swartz JF, Pellersels G, Silvers J, Patten L, Cervantez D. A catheter-based curative approach to atrial fibrillation in humans [Abstract]. Circulation. 1994;90:I-335.
158. Guiraudon GM. Surgical treatment of atrial fibrillation. Herz. 1993;18:51-9.
159. Williamson BD, Man KC, Daoud E, Niebauer M, Strickberger SA, Morady F. Radiofrequency catheter modification of atrioventricular conduction to control the ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:910-7.
160. Brignole M, Gianfranchi L, Menozzi C, Bottoni N, Bollini R, Lolli G, et al. Influence of atrioventricular junction radiofrequency ablation in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation and flutter on quality of life and cardiac performance. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:242-6.
161. Olsson SB, Örndahl G, Eneström S, Eskilsson J, Persson S, Grennert ML, et al. Spontaneous reversion from long-lasting atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Acta Med Scand. 1980;207:5-20.
162. Jack CM, Pringle TH, Hanna C Cleland J, Campbell NP. Spontaneous reversion to sinus rhythm from long-standing atrial fibrillation. Ir J Med Sci. 1987;156:330-2.
163. Ciaccheri M, Dolara A, Cecchi F, Manetti A, Mazzuoli F, Santoro G, et al. Spontaneous reversion to normal sinus rhythm after prolonged atrial fibrillation. Acta Cardiol. 1981;36:125-9.
164. Gardner JD, Dunn M. Spontaneous conversion of long-standing atrial fibrillation. Chest. 1982;81:429-32.
165. Noble RJ, Fisch C. Factors in the genesis of atrial fibrillation in rheumatic valvular disease. Cardiovascular Clinic. 1973;5:97-114.
166. Resnekov L. Theory and practice of electroversion of cardiac dysrhythmias. Med Clin North Am. 1976;60:325-42.
167. Van Gelder IC, Crijns HJ, Van Gilst WH, Verwer R, Lie KI. Prediction of uneventful cardioversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm from direct-current electrical cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation and flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68:41-6.
168. Manning WJ, Silverman DI, Katz SE, Riley MF, Come PC, Doherty RM, et al. Impaired left atrial mechanical function after cardioversion: relation to the duration of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23: 1535-40.
169. Dittrich HC, Erickson JS, Schneiderman T, Blacky AR, Savides T, Nicod PH. Echocardiographic and clinical predictors for outcome of elective cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol, 1989;63:193-7.
170. Bailey GW, Braniff BA, Hancock EW, Cohn KE. Relation of left atrial pathology to atrial fibrillation in mitral valvular disease. Ann Intern Med. 1968;69:13-20.
171. Davies MJ, Pomerance A. Pathology of atrial fibrillation in man. Br Heart J. 1972;34:520-5.
172. Sanfilippo AJ, Abascal VM, Sheehan M, Oertel LB, Harrigan P, Hughes RA, et al. Atrial enlargement as a consequence of atrial fibrillation. A prospective echocardiographic study. Circulation. 1990;82:792-7.
173. Suarez GS, Lampert S, Ravid S, Lown B. Changes in left atrial size in patients with lone atrial fibrillation. Clin Cardiol. 1991;14:652-6.
174. Manning WJ, Leeman DE, Gotch PJ, Come PC. Pulsed Doppler evaluation of atrial mechanical function after electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;13:617-23.
175. Wijffels MC, Kirchhof C, Dorland R, Allessie MA. Atrial fibrillation begets atrial fibrillation. A study in awake chronically instrumented goats. Circulation. 1995;92:1954-68.
176. Sims BA. Pathogenesis of atrial arrhythmias. Br Heart J. 1972;34:335-40.
177. Lie H, Hammond PI. Pathology of the senescent heart: anatomic observations on 237 autopsy studies of patients 90 to 105 years old. Mayo Clin Proc. 1988;63:552-64.
178. Resnekov L, McDonald L. Electroversion of lone atrial fibrillation and flutter including haemodynamic studies at rest and on exercise. Br Heart J. 1971;33:339-50.
179. Dalzell GW, Anderson J, Adgey AA. Factors determining success and energy requirements for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Q J Med. 1990; 76:903-13.
180. Szekely P. Systemic embolism and anticoagulant prophylaxis in rheumatic heart disease. Br Med J. 1964;1:1209-12.
181. Atwood JE, Albers GW. Anticoagulation and atrial fibrillation. Herz. 1993; 18:27-38.
182. Petersen P, Boysen G, Godtfredsen J, Andersen ED, Andersen B. Placebo-controlled, randomised trial of warfarin and aspirin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in chronic atrial fibrillation. Lancet. 1989; 1:175-9.
183. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. Final results. Circulation. 1991; 84:527-39.
184. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1505-11.
185. Connolly SJ, Laupacis A, Gent M, Roberts RS, Cairns JA, Joyner C. Canadian Atrial Fibrillation Anticoagulation (CAFA) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:349-55.
186. Ezekowitz MD, Bridgers SL, James KE, Carliner NH, Colling CL, Gornick CC, et al. Warfarin in the prevention of stroke associated with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. Veterans Affairs Stroke Prevention in Nonrheumatic Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1406-12.
187. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation II Study. Lancet. 1994;343:687-91.
188. White HD. Aspirin or warfarin for non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation? Lancet. 1994;343:683-4.
189. Wheeldon NM. Atrial fibrillation and anticoagulate therapy. Eur Heart J. 1995;16:302-12.
190. Optimal oral anticoagulant therapy in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation and recent cerebral ischemia. The European Atrial Fibrillation Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:5-10.
191. Wolf PA, Kannel WB, McGee DL, Meeks SL, Bharucha NE, McNamara PM. Duration of atrial fibrillation and imminence of stroke: the Framingham study. Stroke. 1983;14:664-7.
192. Collins LJ, Silverman DI, Douglas PS, Manning WJ. Cardioversion of nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. Reduced thromboembolic complications with 4 weeks of precardioversion anticoagulation are related to atrial thrombus resolution. Circulation. 1995;92:160-3.
193. Manning WJ, Silverman DI, Keighley CS, Oettgen P, Douglas PS. Transesophageal echocardiographically facilitated early cardioversion from atrial fibrillation using short-term anticoagulation: final results of a prospective 4.5-year study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995; 25:1354-61.
194. Stoddard MF, Dawkins PR, Prince CR, Longaker RA. Transesophageal echocardiographic guidance of cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. Am Heart J. 1995;129:1204-15.
195. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischemic attack or minor stroke. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Lancet. 1993;342:1255-62.
196. Simon RP, Day JW, Greenberg DA, Panitch HS, Powers W, So Y. Neurology. In: Gray FD Jr, Kay CF, Moore ME, Waxman HS, eds. Medical Knowledge Self-Assessment Program. 9th ed. Philadelphia: American Coll of Physicians; 1991:104-5.
197. Immediate anticoagulation of embolic stroke: a randomized trial. Cerebral Embolism Study Group. Stroke. 1983;14:668-76.
198. Cardioembolic stroke, early anticoagulation, and brain hemorrhage. Cerebral Embolism Study Group. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147:636-40.
199. Roberts SA, Diaz C, Nolan PE, Salerno DM, Stapczynski JS, Zbrozek AS, et al. Effectiveness and costs of digoxin treatment for atrial fibrillation and flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1993;72:567-73.
200. Moreyra E, Finkelhor RS, Cebul RD. Limitations of transesophageal echocardiography in the risk assessment of patients before nonanticoagulated cardioversion from atrial fibrillation and flutter: an analysis of pooled trials. Am Heart J, 1995;129:71-5.
201. Treatment of atrial fibrillation. Recommendations from a workshop arranged by the Medical Products Agency (Uppsala, Sweden) and the Swedish Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 1993;14:1427-33.
202. Calkins H, Sousa J, el-Atassi R, Rosenheck S, de Buitleir M, Kou WH, et al. Diagnosis and cure of the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome or paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardias during a single electrophysiologic test. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1612-8.
203. Jackman WM, Wang X, Friday KJ, Roman CA, Moutton KP, Beckman KJ, et al. Catheter ablation of accessory atrioventricular pathways (Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome) by radiofrequency current. N Engl J Med. 1991; 324:1605-11.
204. Feld GK, Nademanee K, Stevenson W, Weiss J, Klitzner T, Singh BN. Clinical and electrophysiologic effects of amiodarone in patients with atrial fibrillation complicating the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Am Heart J. 1988;115(1 Pt 1):102-7.
205. Pritchett EL, Anderson JL. Antiarrhythmic strategies for the chronic management of supraventricular tachycardias. Am J Cardiol. 1988;62:1D-2D.