Ethnic conflicts and hometown associations: An analysis of the experience of the Agila development association

Africa Today

Volumn 43, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 139-156

  Agbese, Pita Ogaba ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0030559639     PISSN: 00019887     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. Eghosa E. Osaghae, "Redeeming the Utility of the Ethnic Perspective in African Studies: Towards a New Agenda," The Journal of Ethnic Studies 18, no. 2 (Summer 1990), p. 37.
2. Ike E. Udogu, "The Allurement of Ethnonationalism in Nigerian Politics: The Contemporary Debate," Journal of Asian and African Studies 29, nos. 3-4 (July-October 1994), pp. 159-171.
3. See, for example, Heribert Adam, "The Politics of Ethnic Identity: Comparing South Africa," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 3 (1995), pp. 457-475; Saul Duhow, "Ethnic Euphemism and Racial Echoes in South Africa," Journal of Southern Africa Studies 20, no. 3 (September 1994), pp. 355-370; John Londregan, Henry Bienen, and Nicholas van de Walle, "Ethnicity and Leadership Succession in Africa," International Studies Quarterly 39, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 1-25; Donald Rothchild, "Ethnic Bargaining and State Breakdown in Africa," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 1, no. 1 (1995), pp. 54-72.
4. See, for example, Heribert Adam, "The Politics of Ethnic Identity: Comparing South Africa," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 3 (1995), pp. 457-475; Saul Duhow, "Ethnic Euphemism and Racial Echoes in South Africa," Journal of Southern Africa Studies 20, no. 3 (September 1994), pp. 355-370; John Londregan, Henry Bienen, and Nicholas van de Walle, "Ethnicity and Leadership Succession in Africa," International Studies Quarterly 39, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 1-25; Donald Rothchild, "Ethnic Bargaining and State Breakdown in Africa," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 1, no. 1 (1995), pp. 54-72.
5. See, for example, Heribert Adam, "The Politics of Ethnic Identity: Comparing South Africa," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 3 (1995), pp. 457-475; Saul Duhow, "Ethnic Euphemism and Racial Echoes in South Africa," Journal of Southern Africa Studies 20, no. 3 (September 1994), pp. 355-370; John Londregan, Henry Bienen, and Nicholas van de Walle, "Ethnicity and Leadership Succession in Africa," International Studies Quarterly 39, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 1-25; Donald Rothchild, "Ethnic Bargaining and State Breakdown in Africa," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 1, no. 1 (1995), pp. 54-72.
6. See, for example, Heribert Adam, "The Politics of Ethnic Identity: Comparing South Africa," Ethnic and Racial Studies 18, no. 3 (1995), pp. 457-475; Saul Duhow, "Ethnic Euphemism and Racial Echoes in South Africa," Journal of Southern Africa Studies 20, no. 3 (September 1994), pp. 355-370; John Londregan, Henry Bienen, and Nicholas van de Walle, "Ethnicity and Leadership Succession in Africa," International Studies Quarterly 39, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 1-25; Donald Rothchild, "Ethnic Bargaining and State Breakdown in Africa," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 1, no. 1 (1995), pp. 54-72.
7. Kenneth Post, The Nigerian Federal Election of 1959 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 13.
8. Ibid., p. 395.
9. W. L. Barrows, "Ethnic Diversity and Political Instability in Black Africa," Comparative Political Studies IX (1976).
10. David R. Smock and Audrey C. Smock, The Politics of Pluralism: A Comparative Study of Lebanon and Ghana (New York: Elsevier, 1975), p. 4.
11. Ibid., p. 3.
12. Okwudiba Nnoli, Ethnic Politics in Nigeria (Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Press, 1978).
13. Yusufu Bala Usman, For the Liberation of Nigeria (London: New Beacon Press, 1979).
14. See, among other works, A. Mafeje, "The Ideology of Tribalism," Journal of Modern African Studies 9, no. 2 (1971); Yolamu Barongo, "Alternative Approaches to African Politics," in Yolamu Barongo, ed., Political Science in Africa: A Critical Review (London: Zed Press, 1983).
15. See, among other works, A. Mafeje, "The Ideology of Tribalism," Journal of Modern African Studies 9, no. 2 (1971); Yolamu Barongo, "Alternative Approaches to African Politics," in Yolamu Barongo, ed., Political Science in Africa: A Critical Review (London: Zed Press, 1983).
16. Richard L. Sklar, "Ethnic Relations and Social Class," in A. O. Sanda, ed., Ethnic Relations in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects (Ibadan, Nigeria: Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan, 1976), p. 151.
17. Peter Ekeh, "Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa," Comparative Studies in History and Society 17, no. 1 (January 1975), p. 105.
18. Osaghae, "Redeeming the Utility of the Ethnic Perspective," p. 42.
19. See, for instance, articles in The U.S. Nigerian Voice 1, no. 7 (September/October 1994).
20. Ken Saro-Wiwa, Genocide in Nigeria: The Ogoni Tragedy (London: Saros International Publishers, 1992): see also Ken Saro-Wiwa, On a Darkling Plain: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War (London: Saros International Publishers, 1989).
21. Ken Saro-Wiwa, Genocide in Nigeria: The Ogoni Tragedy (London: Saros International Publishers, 1992): see also Ken Saro-Wiwa, On a Darkling Plain: An Account of the Nigerian Civil War (London: Saros International Publishers, 1989).
22. See, for example, the pamphlet published by the Ogoni Study Group, Crisis in Ogoniland: The True Story (Port Harcourt, 22 May 1995).
23. The degree of Saro-Wiwa's success is attested by the fact that several countries, including Great Britain and the United States, intensified economic and military sanctions against Nigeria in the wake of his execution. Nelson Mandela, the president of South Africa, has called for international boycott of Nigerian oil in response to Saro-Wiwa's hanging by the Nigerian government. The Commonwealth suspended Nigeria's membership and gave the Nigerian government two years to restore democracy or face expulsion from the organization.
24. For a historical analysis of the Agila and other Idoma-speaking people, see R. Armstrong, "The Idoma Speaking People," in D. Forde, ed., Peoples of the Niger-Benue Confluence (London: International African Institute, 1955).
25. Agila Progressive Union, Constitution of the Agila Progressive Union, 1963, p. 1.
26. Michael Hechter, Principles of Group Solidarity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).
27. Lillian Trager, "Women Migrants and Hometown Linkages in Nigeria: Status, Economic Roles, and Contributions to Community Development," in Women and Demographic Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (forthcoming).
28. This was particularly manifested after the annulment of the 1993 presidential election in Nigeria. Many people, fearing the outbreak of violence, fled from large metropolitan places, such as Lagos and Kano, to their hometowns.
29. This may explain the practice in which migrants from the ancestral homes build houses in the hometown (which they may use only occasionally) and live in rented houses in their places of residence.
30. Trager, "Women Migrants and Hometown Linkages in Nigeria," p. 28.
31. Ibid., p. 29.
32. J. D. Y. Peel, Ijeshas and Nigerians: The Incorporation of a Yoruba Kingdom, 1890s-1970s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 260.
33. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
34. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
35. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
36. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
37. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
38. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
39. For the literature on hometown associations, see J. D. Barkan, M. McNulty, and M. A. O. Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations, Local Development and the Emergence of Civil Society in Western Nigeria," The Journal of Modern African Studies 29, no. 3 (1991), pp. 457-480: A. Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks: The State, Civil Society, Voluntary Action and Grassroot Development in Africa," Africa Quarterly 30, nos. 3-4 (1990), pp. 24-40; K. Little, West African Urbanization: A Study of Voluntary Associations and Social Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965); S.T. Barnes, "Voluntary Associations in a Metropolis: The Case of Lagos, Nigeria," African Studies Review 18, no. 2 (1975), pp. 75-87: A. Smock, Ibo Politics: The Role of Ethnic Unions in Eastern Nigeria (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); S. Ottenberg, "Improvement Associations Among the Afikpo Ibo," Africa 25 (January 1955), pp. 1-23; M. McNulty and M. Lawrence, "Hometown Associations: Balancing Local and Extra-local Interests in Nigerian Communities" (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association of American Geographers, Atlanta, Georgia. 8 April 1993).
40. See, for instance, Barkan, McNulty, and Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations"; Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks."
41. See, for instance, Barkan, McNulty, and Ayeni, "Hometown Voluntary Associations"; Agbaje, "In Search of Building Blocks."
42. For details on this clash, which led to the deaths of several people, see "Ripples at Waterfront: Echoes of Okrika, Ogoni Clash," National Concord (Lagos, Nigeria), 14 January 1994, p. 5.
43. This is not a recent phenomenon: some hometown associations helped procure weapons for the hometowns during the Yoruba wars of the nineteenth century.
44. The military administrator of Benue State, Group Captain Joshua Obademi, was recently reported to have come across some retired soldiers firing "sophisticated weapons" during a heated battle between the Tiv and the Jukun communities. See AM News (Lagos, Nigeria), 10 January 1996, p. 2.
45. Letter from the secretary-general of the Agila Progressive Union to the premier of Northern Nigeria, Sir Ahmadu Bello, 14 October 1964.
46. Ibid.
47. Agila District Development Union, Report of the Discussion Held with the Military Governor of the North (13 March 1967).
48. Confidential interview with the author, Kaduna, Nigeria, July 1993.
49. Confidential interview with the author, Makurdi, Nigeria, 11 June 1993.
50. Agila District Development Union, Memo on Resettlement of Agila, 6 May 1970.
51. Confidential interview, Makurdi, Nigeria, 10 June 1993.