Dealing with deceptions that are difficult to detect: Encoding and judgment as a function of preparing to receive invalid information

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 228-253

  Schul, Yaacov ^a   Burnstein, Eugene ^b   Bardi, Anat ^a  

^a HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^b Hebrew University Mount Scopus ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030558978     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jesp.1996.0011     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. Aaronson, D., & Watts, B. (1987). Extensions to Grier's computational formulas for A′ and B″ to below-chance performance. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 439-442.
2. Anderson, C. A., Lepper, M. R., & Ross, L (1980). Perseverance of social theories: The role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1037-1049.
3. Anderson, N. H. (1981). Foundations of information integration theory. New York: Academic Press.
4. Asch, S. E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258-290.
5. Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
6. Bransford, J., & Johnson, M. (1973). Considerations of some problems of comprehension. In W. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic Press.
7. Bransford, J., Barclay, J. R., & Franks, J. J. (1972). Sentence memory: A constructive versus interpretive approach. Cognitive Psychology, 3, 193-209.
8. Burnstein, E., & Schul, Y. (1982). The informational basis of social judgments: Operations in forming an impression of another person. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 217-234.
9. Burnstein, E., & Schul, Y. (1983). The information basis of social judgments: Memory for integrated and non-integrated trait descriptions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 49-57.
10. Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Vleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought, (pp. 212-252). New York: Guilford Press.
11. Cialdini, R. B., & Petty, R. E. (1981). Anticipatory opinion change. In R. E. Petty et al. (Eds.) Cognitive response to persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. (pp. 217-236).
12. Cosmides, L. (1989). The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task. Cognition, 31, 187-276.
13. Dooling, D. J., & Christiaansen, R. E. (1977). Episodic and semantic aspects of memory for prose. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 428-436.
14. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Chaiken, S. (1978). Causal inferences about communicators and their effect on opinion change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 424-435.
15. Fein, S., & Hilton, J. L. (1994). Judging others in the shadow of suspicion. Motivation and Emotion, 18, 167-198.
16. Fein, S., Hilton, J. L. & Miller, D. T. (1990). Suspicion of ulterior motivation and correspondence bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 753-764.
17. Fiske, S. T. (1980). Attention and weight in person perception: The impact of negative and extreme behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 889-906.
18. Grier, J. B. (1971). A nonparametric index of response bias for use in detection and recognition experiments. Psychological Bulletin, 75, 351-354.
19. Hamilton, D. L., Katz, L. B., & Leirer, V. O. (1980). Organizational processes in impression formation. In R. Hastie, T. Ostrom, E. Ebbesen, R. Wyer, D. Hamilton, & D. Carlston (Eds.), Person memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
20. Higgind, E. T. (1980). The "communication game": Implications for social cognition and persuasion. In T. Higgins, C. P. Herman, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Social cognition: The Ontario symposium. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
21. Hilton J. L., Fein, S., & Miller, D. T. (1993). Suspicion and dispositional inference. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 501-512.
22. Hogarth, R. M., & Einhorn, H. J. (1992). Order effect in belief updating: The belief-adjustment model. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 1-55.
23. Kahneman D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93, 136-153.
24. Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model. Psychology Review, 95, 163-182.
25. Kitayama, S., & Burnstein, E. (1988). Automaticity in conversations: A re-examination of the mindlessness hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 219-224.
26. Klein, S. B., & Loftus, J. (1988). The nature of self-referent encoding: The contribution of elaborative and organizational processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 5-11.
27. Koehler, D. J. (1991). Explanation, imagination, and confidence in judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 499-519.
28. Kruglanski, A., & Freund, T. (1983). The freezing of lay inferences effects of impressional primacy, ethnic stereotyping and numerical anchoring. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 448-468.
29. Kruglanski, A. W. (1989). Lay epistemics and human knowledge. New York: Plenum Press.
30. Kruglanski, A. W., & Mayseless, O. (1987). Motivation effects in the social-comparison of opinions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 834-842
31. Kruglanski, A. W., Peri, N., & Zakai, D. (1991). Interactive effects of need for closure and initial confidence on social information seeking. Social Cognition, 9, 127-148.
32. Lombardi, W. J., Higgins, T. E., & Bargh, J. A. (1987). The role of consciousness in priming effects on categorization: Assimilation versus contrast as a function of awareness of the priming task: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 411-429.
33. Mayseless, O., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1987). Accuracy of estimates in the social-comparison of abilities. Social Cognition, 23, 217-229.
34. Neuberg, S. L. (1994). Expectancy-confirmation processes in stereotype-tinged social encounters: The moderating role of social goals. In M.P. Zanna & J.M. Olson (Eds.), The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium, volume 7. Hillsdale, (pp. 103-130) NJ: Erlbaum.
35. O'Brien, E. J., Shank, D. M., Myers, J. L., & Rayner, K. (1988). Elaborative inferences during reading: Do they occur on line? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 410-420.
36. Owens, J., Bower, G. H., & Black, J. B. (1979). The "soap opera" effect in story recall. Memory & Cognition, 7, 185-191.
37. Papageorgis, D. (1968). Warning and persuasion. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 271-282.
38. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1977). Forewarning, cognitive responding, and resistance to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 645-655.
39. Petty, R. E., & Wegner, D. T. (1993). Flexible correction processes in social judgment: Correcting for context-induced contrast. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 137-175.
40. Reder, L. M. (1982). Plausibility judgments versus fact retrieval: Alternative strategies for sentence verification. Psychological Review, 89, 250-280.
41. Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., Strack, F., & Steinmetz, J. (1977). Social explanations and social expectations: Effects of real and hypothetical explanations on subjective likelihood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 817-829.
42. Schul, Y. (1986). The effect of the amount of information and its relevance on memory-based and stimulus-based judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 355-373.
43. Schul, Y. (1993). When warning succeeds: The effect of warning on success of ignoring invalid information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 42-62.
44. Schul, Y., & Burnstein, E. (1985). When discounting fails: Conditions under which individuals use discredited information in making a judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 894-903.
45. Schul, Y., Burnstein, E., & Martinez, J. (1983). The informational basis of social judgments: Under what conditions are inconsistent trait descriptions processed as easily as consistent ones? European Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 143-151.
46. Schul, Y., & Manzury F. (1990). The effect of type of encoding and strength of discounting appeal on the success of ignoring an invalid testimony. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 337-349.
47. Schul, Y., & Mazursky, D. (1990). Conditions facilitating successful discounting in consumer decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 442-451.
48. Taylor, S. E., & Fiske, S. T. (1978). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomenon. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances of experimental social psychology. Academic Press.
49. Thompson, E. P., Roman, R. J., Moskowitz, G. B. Chaiken, S., & Bargh, J. A. (1994). Accuracy motivation attenuates covert priming: The systematic reprocessing of social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 474-489.
50. Uleman, J. S., & Moskowitz, G. B. (1994). Unintended effects of goals on unintended inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 490-501.
51. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34-52.
52. Woll, S. B., & Graesser, A. C. (1982). Memory discrimination for information typical or atypical of person schemata. Social Cognition, 1, 287-310.
53. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
54. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). The process of cognitive tuning in communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 159-167.