Environmental degradation and social conflict in the Northern Highlands of Ethiopia: The case of Tigray and Wollo provinces

Africa Today

Volumn 43, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 157-182

  Lanz, Tobias J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0030549641     PISSN: 00019887     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (85)

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5. Angelique Haugerud, "Land Tenure and Agrarian Change in Kenya," Africa 59 (1989), pp. 61-90; John M. Mackenzie, The Empire of Nature Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Pauline E. Peters, "Struggles over Water, Struggles over Meaning: Cattle, Water and the State in Botswana," Africa 54 (1984), pp. 29-49: and Eric Worby, "Livestock Policy and Development Ideology in Botswana," in Donald W. Atwood, Thomas C. Bruneau, and John G. Galaty, eds., Power and Poverty: Development and Development Projects in the Third World (London: Westview Press, 1988).
6. Angelique Haugerud, "Land Tenure and Agrarian Change in Kenya," Africa 59 (1989), pp. 61-90; John M. Mackenzie, The Empire of Nature Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1988); Pauline E. Peters, "Struggles over Water, Struggles over Meaning: Cattle, Water and the State in Botswana," Africa 54 (1984), pp. 29-49: and Eric Worby, "Livestock Policy and Development Ideology in Botswana," in Donald W. Atwood, Thomas C. Bruneau, and John G. Galaty, eds., Power and Poverty: Development and Development Projects in the Third World (London: Westview Press, 1988).
7. Donald Crummey, "State and Society: Nineteenth Century Ethiopia," in Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, eds., Modes of Production in Africa (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Press, 1981); Edmond Keller, Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988); and George W. B. Huntingford, The Historical Geography of Ethiopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
8. Donald Crummey, "State and Society: Nineteenth Century Ethiopia," in Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, eds., Modes of Production in Africa (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Press, 1981); Edmond Keller, Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988); and George W. B. Huntingford, The Historical Geography of Ethiopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
9. Donald Crummey, "State and Society: Nineteenth Century Ethiopia," in Donald Crummey and C. C. Stewart, eds., Modes of Production in Africa (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Press, 1981); Edmond Keller, Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Empire to People's Republic (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988); and George W. B. Huntingford, The Historical Geography of Ethiopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
10. Girma Kebbede and M. Jacob, "Drought, Famine and the Political Economy of Environmental Degradation in Ethiopia," Geography 73, no. 1 (1988), pp. 65-70; Girma Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1992): and Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest: Peasant Revolts in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
11. Girma Kebbede and M. Jacob, "Drought, Famine and the Political Economy of Environmental Degradation in Ethiopia," Geography 73, no. 1 (1988), pp. 65-70; Girma Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1992): and Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest: Peasant Revolts in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
12. Girma Kebbede and M. Jacob, "Drought, Famine and the Political Economy of Environmental Degradation in Ethiopia," Geography 73, no. 1 (1988), pp. 65-70; Girma Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1992): and Gebru Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest: Peasant Revolts in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
13. Jason Clay, Sandra Steingraber, and Peta Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1988); Jason Clay and B. Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1985); Edmond Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea," Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 4 (1992), pp. 609-624; Alula Pankhurst, Resettlement and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Jack Shepard, The Politics of Starvation (New York: Carnegie Endowment of Peace, 1975).
14. Jason Clay, Sandra Steingraber, and Peta Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1988); Jason Clay and B. Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1985); Edmond Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea," Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 4 (1992), pp. 609-624; Alula Pankhurst, Resettlement and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Jack Shepard, The Politics of Starvation (New York: Carnegie Endowment of Peace, 1975).
15. Jason Clay, Sandra Steingraber, and Peta Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1988); Jason Clay and B. Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1985); Edmond Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea," Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 4 (1992), pp. 609-624; Alula Pankhurst, Resettlement and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Jack Shepard, The Politics of Starvation (New York: Carnegie Endowment of Peace, 1975).
16. Jason Clay, Sandra Steingraber, and Peta Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1988); Jason Clay and B. Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1985); Edmond Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea," Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 4 (1992), pp. 609-624; Alula Pankhurst, Resettlement and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Jack Shepard, The Politics of Starvation (New York: Carnegie Endowment of Peace, 1975).
17. Jason Clay, Sandra Steingraber, and Peta Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1988); Jason Clay and B. Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine (Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival, 1985); Edmond Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea," Journal of Modern African Studies 30, no. 4 (1992), pp. 609-624; Alula Pankhurst, Resettlement and Famine in Ethiopia (New York: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Jack Shepard, The Politics of Starvation (New York: Carnegie Endowment of Peace, 1975).
18. Raman Bhardwaj, The Dilemma of the Horn of Africa (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1979); Lionel Cliffe and Basil Davidson, The Long Struggle of Eritrea (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1992); Colin Legum and B. Lee, Conflict in the Horn of Africa (London: Rex Collings Publishers, 1977); and John Markakis, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
19. Raman Bhardwaj, The Dilemma of the Horn of Africa (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1979); Lionel Cliffe and Basil Davidson, The Long Struggle of Eritrea (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1992); Colin Legum and B. Lee, Conflict in the Horn of Africa (London: Rex Collings Publishers, 1977); and John Markakis, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
20. Raman Bhardwaj, The Dilemma of the Horn of Africa (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1979); Lionel Cliffe and Basil Davidson, The Long Struggle of Eritrea (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1992); Colin Legum and B. Lee, Conflict in the Horn of Africa (London: Rex Collings Publishers, 1977); and John Markakis, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
21. Raman Bhardwaj, The Dilemma of the Horn of Africa (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1979); Lionel Cliffe and Basil Davidson, The Long Struggle of Eritrea (Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1992); Colin Legum and B. Lee, Conflict in the Horn of Africa (London: Rex Collings Publishers, 1977); and John Markakis, National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
22. Alemneh Dejene, Environment, Famine and Politics in Ethiopia (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990); and James McCann, From Poverty to Famine in Northeast Ethiopia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987).
23. Alemneh Dejene, Environment, Famine and Politics in Ethiopia (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990); and James McCann, From Poverty to Famine in Northeast Ethiopia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987).
24. Bekure Semait, "Ecological Stress and Political Conflict in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia," in Anders Hjort and Mohamed A. Salih, eds., Ecology and Politics: Environmental Stress and Security in Africa (Uppsala, Sweden: SIAS, 1989).
25. M. Stahl, "Environmental Degradation and Political Restraints in Ethiopia," in Anders Hjort and Mohamed Salih, eds., Ecology and Politics.
26. Markakis, National and Class Conflict, p. 3.
27. Alan Mountjoy and David Hilling, Africa: Geography and Development (Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble Publishers, 1988), p. 174.
28. Stahl, "Environmental Degradation," p. 183.
29. Markakis, National and Class Conflict, p. 4.
30. Tareke. Ethiopia: Power and Protest, p. 33.
31. Marina Ottaway, Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution (New York: Holmes and Meter, 1978), p. 27.
32. Donald Levine, Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), p. 37.
33. Peter Schwab, Ethiopia: Politics, Economics and Society (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1985), p. 7.
34. For an overview of early to mid-twentieth-century socioeconomic history, see Shiferaw Bekele, ed., An Economic History of Modern Ethiopia (Dakar, Senegal: CODESRIA, 1995).
35. Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine," p. 73.
36. John Markakis and Nega Ayele, Class and Revolution in Ethiopia (Nottingham, England: Spokesman Press, 1978), p. 34.
37. Schwab, Ethiopia, pp. 13-23.
38. Markakis and Ayele, Class and Revolution in Ethiopia, p. 128.
39. Sandra Steingraber, "Introduction," in Clay, Steingraber, and Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine, p. 15.
40. Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest, p. 46.
41. Ibid., p. 74.
42. Ibid., p. 76.
43. Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine," p. 127.
44. Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia, p. 13.
45. Asata Jalata, Oromia and Ethiopia: State Formation and Ethnonational Conflict, 1868-1992 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993), p. 136.
46. UN, Handbook of International Trade and Development Statistics, 1985 Supplement (New York: UN, 1985), p. 448.
47. Schwab, Ethiopia, p. 15.
48. Ryszard Kaupusinski, The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat (New York, NY:"Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1983), p. 111.
49. Markakis and Ayele, Class and Revolution in Ethiopia, p. 79.
50. Mesfin Wolde-Miriam, "The Socioeconomic Consequences of Famine," in Fassil G. Kiros, ed., Challenging Rural Poverty (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1985), p. 14.
51. Rene LeFort. Ethiopia: An Heretical Revolution? (London: Zed Press, 1983), p. 70.
52. Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia, p. 72.
53. Schwab, Ethiopia, p. 15.
54. Clay and Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine, p. 18.
55. Ottaway, Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution, p. 32.
56. For an overview of agricultural policy under the Mengistu regime, see K. Griffin and H. Roger, "Problems of Agricultural Development in Socialist Ethiopia," Journal of Peasant Studies 13 (October 1985), pp. 37-66.
57. D. Gamachu, Environment and Development in Ethiopia (Geneva, Switzerland: HRD, 1989), p. 8.
58. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Ministry of Agriculture, 1984), p. 73.
59. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1989), p. 222.
60. Ottaway, Ethiopia: Empire in Revolution, p. 87.
61. Ibid., p. 91.
62. Graham Hancock, Ethiopia: The Challenge of Hunger (London: Victor Gollancz, 1985), p. 77.
63. UN, Handbook of International Trade, p. 448.
64. FAO, Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study, p. 33.
65. Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia, p. 76.
66. "Ethiopia Revisited," Africa Recovery 1, no. 2 (February-April 1987), p. 7.
67. Ibid., p. 78.
68. Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine," p. 225.
69. Clay and Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine, p. 43.
70. Ibid., p. 44.
71. Dejene, Environment, Famine and Politics, p. 88.
72. Clay and Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine, p. 44.
73. Tareke, Ethiopia: Power and Protest, p. 91.
74. Dejene, Environment, Famine and Politics, p. 69.
75. Keller, "Drought, War and the Politics of Famine," p. 226.
76. T. Nichola, The Agricultural Sector in Ethiopia (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Institute of Agricultural Research, 1989), p. 16.
77. Kebbecle, The State and Development in Ethiopia, p. 80.
78. Ibid.
79. Sandra Steingraber, "Resettlement in 1985-1986: Ecological Excuses and Environmental Consequences," in Clay, Steingraber, and Niggli, eds., The Spoils of Famine, p. 17.
80. Kebbede, The State and Development in Ethiopia, p. 81.
81. Dejene, Environment, Famine and Politics, p. 97.
82. Clay and Holcomb, Politics and the Ethiopian Famine, p. 220.
83. Nichola, The Agricultural Sector in Ethiopia, p. 16.
84. Steingraber, "Resettlement in 1985-1986," p. 17.
85. For a general view on these problems, see L. Timberlake, Africa in Crisis: The Causes, Cures of Environmental Bankruptcy (London: Earthscan, 1985).