Manly men and womanly women: Deviance, gender role polarization, and the shift in women's school employment, 1900-1976

Harvard Educational Review

Volumn 66, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 318-338

  Blount, Jackie M ^a  

^a IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030547122     PISSN: 00178055     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17763/haer.66.2.q24710621vp7k518     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Elizabeth Hansot and David Tyack, The Dream Deferred: A Golden Age for Women School Administrators, Policy Paper No. 81-C2 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, May 1981), p. 23.
2. John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam, Education of the American Population: A 1960 Monograph, U.S. Department of Commerce (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 81.
3. "The Highest Salaried Woman in the World," Western Journal of Education, 14 (1909), 515.
4. Folger and Nam, Education of the American Population, p. 81.
5. Jackie M. Blount, "Women and the Superintendency, 1900-1990: Destined to Rule the Schools of Every City," Diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1993, p. 76.
6. Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Catharine Beecher: Transforming the Teaching Profession," in Women's, America: Refocusing the Past, 3rd ed., ed. Linda K. Kerber and Jane Sherron DeHart (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 177.
7. Catharine E. Beecher, The True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women (Boston: Phillips, Sampson, 1851), pp. 52-60, quoted in David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Learning Together: A History of Coeducation In American Public Schools (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992), p. 41.
8. Catharine E. Beecher, The True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women (Boston: Phillips, Sampson, 1851), pp. 52-60, quoted in David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Learning Together: A History of Coeducation In American Public Schools (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992), p. 41.
9. Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Daughters into Teachers: Education and Demographic Influences on the Transformation into 'Women's Work' in America," History of Education Review, 12, No. 1 (1983), 15-28; Richard M. Bernard and Maris A. Vinovskis, "The Female School Teacher in Antebellum Massachusetts," Journal of Social History, 10(1977), 336-337.
10. Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Daughters into Teachers: Education and Demographic Influences on the Transformation into 'Women's Work' in America," History of Education Review, 12, No. 1 (1983), 15-28; Richard M. Bernard and Maris A. Vinovskis, "The Female School Teacher in Antebellum Massachusetts," Journal of Social History, 10(1977), 336-337.
11. David Tyack and Myra Strober, "Jobs and Gender," in Educational Policy and Management: Sex Differentials, ed. Patricia A. Schmuck, W. W. Charters Jr., and Richard O. Carlson (New York: Academic Press, 1981), pp. 131-152.
12. The term "spinster" originated in Europe, where unmarried women commonly employed their time literally by spinning thread. In general parlance, "spinster" eventually came to mean a single woman. From 1850 to around 1950 in this country, so many school teachers were single women that the terms "spinster" and "teacher" became popularly linked. See Judy Grahn, Another Mother Tongue (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984), pp. 111-113.
13. Catharine Goggin, "Early Days," quoted in Marjorie Murphy, Blackboard Unions: The AFT and the NEA, 1900-1980 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 73.
14. Richard A. Quantz, "The Complex Visions of Female Teachers and the Failure of Unionization in the 1930s: An Oral History," History of Education Quarterly, 25 (1985), 446.
15. Grace Strachan, "Two Masters Cannot be Served," The Woman Voter, 5, No. 12 (1914), 12.
16. "Employment of Married Women as Teachers," Research Bulletin of the NEA, 10 (1932), 17.
17. For data on the marital status of women teachers, see John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam, Education of the American Population: A 1960 Census Monograph, U.S. Bureau of the Census (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 81.
18. Howard K. Beale, Are American Teachers Free? (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936), pp. 384-385.
19. Thomas Woody, A History of Women's Education in the United States, vol. 1 (New York: Science Press, 1929), p. 509.
20. Kellie Wilkinson McGarrh, "Hanging in Tough: The Life of Superintendent Mildred E. Doyle, 1904-1989," Diss., University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1995.
21. Edward T. James amd Janet Wilson James, eds., Notable American Women (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1980).
22. David Tyack, "Pilgrim's Progress: Toward a Social History of the School Superintendency, 1890-1960," in History of Education Quarterly, 16 (1976), 257-300.
23. Emphasis added. Cited in the first published book about the superintendency, William H. Payne, Chapters on School Supervision: A Practical Treatise on Superintendence; Grading; Arranging Courses of Study; the Preparation and Use of Blanks, Records, and Reports; Examinations for Promotion, Etc. (Cincinnati: Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 1875), pp. 47-53.
24. NEA Department of Superintendence/AASA Surveys were published in 1923, 1933, 1952, 1960, 1971. For an excellent descriptive summary of the first four of these surveys, see Tyack, "Pilgrim's Progress," pp. 257-300. For a discussion on the dual marriage standards for school administrators, see Hansot and Tyack, The Dream Deferred, pp. 22-23.
25. NEA Department of Superintendence/AASA Surveys were published in 1923, 1933, 1952, 1960, 1971. For an excellent descriptive summary of the first four of these surveys, see Tyack, "Pilgrim's Progress," pp. 257-300. For a discussion on the dual marriage standards for school administrators, see Hansot and Tyack, The Dream Deferred, pp. 22-23.
26. For an extensive treatment of the connections between masculinity and the U.S. economy, see Julie A. Matthaei, An Economic History of Women in America: Women's Work, the Sexual Division of Labor, and the Development of Capitalism (New York: Schocken Books, 1982), especially pp. 105-106.
27. For a discussion of the masculinity crisis, see Joe L. Dubbert, "Progressivism and the Masculinity Crisis," Psychoanalytic Review, 61 (1974), 443-455.
28. Joe L. Dubbert, A Man's Place: Masculinity in Transition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979); George Chauncey, "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conception of Female Deviance," Salmagundi, 58-59 (1983), 114-146.
29. Joe L. Dubbert, A Man's Place: Masculinity in Transition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979); George Chauncey, "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conception of Female Deviance," Salmagundi, 58-59 (1983), 114-146.
30. Payne, Chapters on School Supervision, pp. 47-53.
31. Horace Coon, Coquetry for Men (New York: Amour Press, 1932), pp. 110-111, quoted in Christina Simmons, "Companionate Marriage and the Lesbian Threat," Frontiers, 4 (1979), 55.
32. Horace Coon, Coquetry for Men (New York: Amour Press, 1932), pp. 110-111, quoted in Christina Simmons, "Companionate Marriage and the Lesbian Threat," Frontiers, 4 (1979), 55.
33. G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence, vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton, 1931), p. 623.
34. Tyack and Hansot, Learning Together, pp. 165-200.
35. "Male Teachers Needed," American School Board Journal, 37 (1908), 8.
36. Edward L. Thorndike, Education: A First Book (New York: Macmillan, 1912), p. 155.
37. Louis I. Dublin, "The Higher Education of Women and Race Betterment," Eugenics in Race and State, vol. 2 (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1921), pp. 384-385.
38. Dublin, "The Higher Education," pp. 381-382.
39. Walter M. Gallichan, The Great Unmarried (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1916), pp. 72-73.
40. "Notes and Notices," Eugenics Review, 11 (April 1919), 47.
41. Nathan G. Hale, The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917-1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 3-9.
42. Chauncey, "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality," pp. 114-146; Lillian Faderman, "The Morbidification of Love Between Women by 19th-century Sexologists," Journal of Homosexuality, 4 (1978), 73-90.
43. Chauncey, "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality," pp. 114-146; Lillian Faderman, "The Morbidification of Love Between Women by 19th-century Sexologists," Journal of Homosexuality, 4 (1978), 73-90.
44. Faderman, "The Morbidification of Love Between Women," pp. 73-90.
45. Katharine Bement Davis, Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two Hundred Women (1929; rpt. New York: Arno Press and New York Times, 1972), pp. 247, 263.
46. Willard Waller, The Sociology of Teaching (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1932), p. 143.
47. Margaret Korzitzer, The Modern Woman and Herself (London: Jonathan Cape, 1932), pp. 247-249.
48. Waller, The Sociology of Teaching, pp. 147-149.
49. Lillian Faderman, "Nineteenth-Century Boston Marriage as a Possible Lesson for Today," in Boston Marriages: Romantic but Asexual Relationships among Contemporary Lesbians, ed. Esther D. Rothblum and Kathleen A. Brehony (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), pp. 29-42.
50. See Alison Oram's excellent article, "'Embittered, Sexless or Homosexual': Attacks on Spinster Teachers 1918-39," in Not a Passing Phase: Reclaiming Lesbians in History 1840-1985, ed. Lesbian History Group (London: Women's Press, 1989), pp. 99-118, for a discussion of how the image of the spinster schoolteacher was conflated with that of the "embittered" lesbian. For a description of Young's relationship with Brayton, see Joan Smith, Ella Flagg Young: Portrait of a Leader (Ames, IA: Educational Studies Press, 1979), pp. 186-196.
51. See Alison Oram's excellent article, "'Embittered, Sexless or Homosexual': Attacks on Spinster Teachers 1918-39," in Not a Passing Phase: Reclaiming Lesbians in History 1840-1985, ed. Lesbian History Group (London: Women's Press, 1989), pp. 99-118, for a discussion of how the image of the spinster schoolteacher was conflated with that of the "embittered" lesbian. For a description of Young's relationship with Brayton, see Joan Smith, Ella Flagg Young: Portrait of a Leader (Ames, IA: Educational Studies Press, 1979), pp. 186-196.
52. "Marriage as Related to Eligibility," NEA Research Bulletin, 20 (1942), 61.
53. Leo Chamberlain and Leonard Meece, "Women and Men in the Teaching Profession," Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service (University of Kentucky), 9 (1937), 57, cited in Charol Shakeshaft, Women in Educational Administration, rev. ed. (Newbury Park, NJ: Sage, 1989), p. 47.
54. Leo Chamberlain and Leonard Meece, "Women and Men in the Teaching Profession," Bulletin of the Bureau of School Service (University of Kentucky), 9 (1937), 57, cited in Charol Shakeshaft, Women in Educational Administration, rev. ed. (Newbury Park, NJ: Sage, 1989), p. 47.
55. "Marriage as a Basis for Termination of Service," NEA Research Bulletin, 20 (May 1942), 107-108.
56. "Marriage as a Basis," p. 108.
57. "Marriage as Related to Eligibility," p. 60.
58. "Marriage as Related to Eligibility," p. 60.
59. Statistics from the 1943 and 1962 volumes of Patterson's American Education Directory (Mt. Prospect, IL: Education Directories). Kansas was chosen because it is one of the only states that consistently listed women superintendents with titles (Mrs., Dr.) over the years in question. Other states often omitted titles or included them erratically.
60. Regina Markell Morantz, "The Scientist as Sex Crusader: Alfred C. Kinsey and American Culture," American Quarterly, 29 (1977), 563-589.
61. Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1948), p. 5.
62. Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin, Sexual Behavior, p. 625. Kinsey employed a taxonomic approach in selecting his study participants, rather than random sampling.
63. John D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities, 1940-1970: The Making of a Sexual Minority (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), pp. 33-37.
64. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, pp. 33-37.
65. Allan Berube and John D'Emilio, "The Military and Lesbians during the McCarthy Years," Signs: Journal of Women and Culture in Society, 9 (1984), 759-775; see also Allan Berube, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Penguin, 1990).
66. Allan Berube and John D'Emilio, "The Military and Lesbians during the McCarthy Years," Signs: Journal of Women and Culture in Society, 9 (1984), 759-775; see also Allan Berube, Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two (New York: Penguin, 1990).
67. 81st Congress, 2nd Session, comments by Robert F. Rich (Representative from Pennsylvania), "Perverts in Federal Agencies Called Peril to United States Security, 1950," (Congressional Record (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1950), Appendix 7755.
68. Rich, "Perverts in Federal Agencies."
69. "Mail Snooping," New Republic, August 21, 1965, pp. 6-7.
70. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, pp. 40-49.
71. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, p. 44.
72. Florida Legislative Investigation Committee, Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida: A Report (Tallahassee, FL: Author, 1964).
73. Jonathan Katz, Gay American History, rev. ed. (New York: Meridian, 1992), p. 125.
74. Karen Harbeck, "Gay and Lesbian Educators: Past History/Future Prospects," in Coming Out of the Classroom Closet: Gay and Lesbian Students, Teachers and Curricula, ed. Karen Harbeck (New York: Harrington Park Press, 1992), pp. 125-126. Also, for an outstanding history of the social and legal concerns of gay and lesbian teachers, see Karen Harbeck, "Personal Freedoms/Public Constraints: An Analysis of the Controversy Over the Employment of Homosexuals as School Teachers," Diss., vols. 1 & 2, Stanford University, 1987.
75. Karen Harbeck, "Gay and Lesbian Educators: Past History/Future Prospects," in Coming Out of the Classroom Closet: Gay and Lesbian Students, Teachers and Curricula, ed. Karen Harbeck (New York: Harrington Park Press, 1992), pp. 125-126. Also, for an outstanding history of the social and legal concerns of gay and lesbian teachers, see Karen Harbeck, "Personal Freedoms/Public Constraints: An Analysis of the Controversy Over the Employment of Homosexuals as School Teachers," Diss., vols. 1 & 2, Stanford University, 1987.
76. Harbeck, "Gay and Lesbian Educators," pp. 125-126.
77. Harbeck, "Personal Freedoms," p. 153.
78. Eugene E. Levitt and Albert D. Klassen, "Public Attitudes toward Homosexuality: Part of the 1970 National Survey by the Institute for Sex Research," Journal of Homosexuality, 1 (1974), 33.
79. Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Penguin, 1991), p. 156.
80. See Madiha Didi Khyatt, Lesbian Teachers: An Invisible Presence (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), for an exhaustive accounting of the experiences of nineteen lesbian teachers and how they balanced their hidden identities with their public images in schools.
81. Charol Shakeshaft, Women in Educational Administration, rev. edition (Newbury Park, NJ: Sage, 1989), p. 48.
82. Clare Broadhead, James E. Heald, Stanley E. Hecker, Donald J. Leu, and Herbert C. Rudman, "The Woman Principal: Going the Way of the Buffalo?" National Elementary Principal, 45 (1966), 6.
83. Shakeshaft, Women, p. 48.
84. Sakre Kennington Edson, Pushing the Limits: The Female Administrative Aspirant (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), p. 109.
85. The comparison between marriage rates of the general population and of male superintendents is elaborated in C. Emily Feistritzer, Profile of School Administrators in the U.S. (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Information, 1988), p. 17.
86. Blount, "Destined to Rule the Schools," pp. 195-251.
87. W. W. Carpenter, The Administrator's Wife (Boston: Christopher Publishing, 1941), cited in David Tyack and Elizabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 1820-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1982), p. 191.
88. W. W. Carpenter, The Administrator's Wife (Boston: Christopher Publishing, 1941), cited in David Tyack and Elizabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue: Public School Leadership in America, 1820-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1982), p. 191.
89. McGarrh, "Hangin' in Tough," pp. 115-124.
90. Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift (New York: Avon Books, 1989).
91. Alice S. Barter, "The Status of Women in School Administration," Educational Digest, 25 (1959), 40-41; Harris A. Taylor, "Women in Administration," American School and University, 35 (1963), 21-23; and Broadhead, Heald, Hecker, Leu, and Rudman, "The Woman Principal," pp. 6-11.
92. Alice S. Barter, "The Status of Women in School Administration," Educational Digest, 25 (1959), 40-41; Harris A. Taylor, "Women in Administration," American School and University, 35 (1963), 21-23; and Broadhead, Heald, Hecker, Leu, and Rudman, "The Woman Principal," pp. 6-11.
93. Alice S. Barter, "The Status of Women in School Administration," Educational Digest, 25 (1959), 40-41; Harris A. Taylor, "Women in Administration," American School and University, 35 (1963), 21-23; and Broadhead, Heald, Hecker, Leu, and Rudman, "The Woman Principal," pp. 6-11.
94. Jean Stockard, "Sex Inequalities and the Experiences of Students," in Sex Equity in Education, ed. Jean Stockard, Patricia Schmuck, Ken Kempner, Peg Williams, Sakre Edson, and Mary Ann Smith (New York: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 29-30.
95. Blount, "Women and the Superintendency," p. 76.