From apartheid to democracy: Patterns of violent and nonviolent direct action in South Africa, 1984-1994

Africa Today

Volumn 43, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 53-76

  Sommer, Henrik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

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EID: 0030530830     PISSN: 00019887     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. I. William Zartman, "Negotiating the South African Conflict," in his (ed.) Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1995), p. 147.
2. Examples include Heribert Adam and Kogila Moodley, A Negotiated Revolution (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1993); Johannes Rantete and Hermann Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?: Bilateral Negotiations between the ANC and the NP in South Africa," African Affairs 91, no. 365 (October 1992), pp. 515-542; Sipho Shezi, "South Africa: State Transition and the Management of Collapse," in I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994); and I. William Zartman, Collapsed States.
3. Examples include Heribert Adam and Kogila Moodley, A Negotiated Revolution (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1993); Johannes Rantete and Hermann Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?: Bilateral Negotiations between the ANC and the NP in South Africa," African Affairs 91, no. 365 (October 1992), pp. 515-542; Sipho Shezi, "South Africa: State Transition and the Management of Collapse," in I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994); and I. William Zartman, Collapsed States.
4. Examples include Heribert Adam and Kogila Moodley, A Negotiated Revolution (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1993); Johannes Rantete and Hermann Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?: Bilateral Negotiations between the ANC and the NP in South Africa," African Affairs 91, no. 365 (October 1992), pp. 515-542; Sipho Shezi, "South Africa: State Transition and the Management of Collapse," in I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994); and I. William Zartman, Collapsed States.
5. Examples include Heribert Adam and Kogila Moodley, A Negotiated Revolution (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1993); Johannes Rantete and Hermann Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?: Bilateral Negotiations between the ANC and the NP in South Africa," African Affairs 91, no. 365 (October 1992), pp. 515-542; Sipho Shezi, "South Africa: State Transition and the Management of Collapse," in I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994); and I. William Zartman, Collapsed States.
6. Pierre Du Toit, "Bargaining About Bargaining: Inducing the Self-Negating Prediction in Deeply Divided Societies - The Case of South Africa," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no. 2 (June 1989), pp. 210-230; Rantete and Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?"; Timothy Sisk, Democratization in South Africa: The Elusive Social Contract (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
7. Pierre Du Toit, "Bargaining About Bargaining: Inducing the Self-Negating Prediction in Deeply Divided Societies - The Case of South Africa," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no. 2 (June 1989), pp. 210-230; Rantete and Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?"; Timothy Sisk, Democratization in South Africa: The Elusive Social Contract (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
8. Pierre Du Toit, "Bargaining About Bargaining: Inducing the Self-Negating Prediction in Deeply Divided Societies - The Case of South Africa," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33, no. 2 (June 1989), pp. 210-230; Rantete and Giliomee, "Transition to Democracy Through Transaction?"; Timothy Sisk, Democratization in South Africa: The Elusive Social Contract (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
9. For an overview of democratization through pacts or settlements, see Guiseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990); and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, no. 1 (October 1990), pp. 1-21.
10. For an overview of democratization through pacts or settlements, see Guiseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990); and Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23, no. 1 (October 1990), pp. 1-21.
11. Since the end of the 1960s, with the exception of Gene Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1980), to the best of my knowledge there has been no writing on nonviolent action in South Africa.
12. Doug Bond and Joe Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1995).
13. Doug Bond and Brad Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy: Global Patterns and Processes in 1990," paper presented at the XIV World Congress of the International Political Science Association, Berlin, 1994.
14. Ralph E. Crow, Philip Grant, and Saad E. Ibrahim, eds., Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1990); see also Gene Sharp, "Gene Sharp: Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 19 (Autumn 1987), pp. 37-55; and "The Intifadah and Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 21 (Spring 1989), pp. 3-13.
15. Ralph E. Crow, Philip Grant, and Saad E. Ibrahim, eds., Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1990); see also Gene Sharp, "Gene Sharp: Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 19 (Autumn 1987), pp. 37-55; and "The Intifadah and Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 21 (Spring 1989), pp. 3-13.
16. Ralph E. Crow, Philip Grant, and Saad E. Ibrahim, eds., Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1990); see also Gene Sharp, "Gene Sharp: Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 19 (Autumn 1987), pp. 37-55; and "The Intifadah and Nonviolent Struggle," Journal of Palestine Studies 21 (Spring 1989), pp. 3-13.
17. Norman Etherington, ed., Peace, Politics and Violence in the New South Africa (New York: Hans Zell Publishers, 1992).
18. Sisk, Democratization in South Africa, p. 42.
19. Gene Sharp, "Appendix A: The Role of Power in Nonviolent Political Struggle," in Ralph E. Crow, Philip Grant, and Saad E. Ibrahim, Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle, p. 102.
20. Doug Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," Journal of Peace Research 25, no. 1 (March 1988); Doug Bond, "Nonviolent Direct Action and the Diffusion of Power," in Paul Wehr, Heidi Burgess, and Guy Burgess, eds., Justice Without Violence (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994).
21. Doug Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," Journal of Peace Research 25, no. 1 (March 1988); Doug Bond, "Nonviolent Direct Action and the Diffusion of Power," in Paul Wehr, Heidi Burgess, and Guy Burgess, eds., Justice Without Violence (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994).
22. Bond and Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action.
23. The most critical passages can be found in Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1973), pp. 7-62; Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, pp. 21-67, 309, 378. For a structuralist and feminist critique of Sharp's theory, see Brian Martin, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power," Journal of Peace Research 26, no. 2 (May 1989), pp. 217-222; and Kate McGuinnes, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent," Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1 (February 1980), pp. 101-115.
24. The most critical passages can be found in Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1973), pp. 7-62; Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, pp. 21-67, 309, 378. For a structuralist and feminist critique of Sharp's theory, see Brian Martin, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power," Journal of Peace Research 26, no. 2 (May 1989), pp. 217-222; and Kate McGuinnes, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent," Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1 (February 1980), pp. 101-115.
25. The most critical passages can be found in Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1973), pp. 7-62; Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, pp. 21-67, 309, 378. For a structuralist and feminist critique of Sharp's theory, see Brian Martin, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power," Journal of Peace Research 26, no. 2 (May 1989), pp. 217-222; and Kate McGuinnes, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent," Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1 (February 1980), pp. 101-115.
26. The most critical passages can be found in Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1973), pp. 7-62; Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, pp. 21-67, 309, 378. For a structuralist and feminist critique of Sharp's theory, see Brian Martin, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power," Journal of Peace Research 26, no. 2 (May 1989), pp. 217-222; and Kate McGuinnes, "Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent," Journal of Peace Research 30, no. 1 (February 1980), pp. 101-115.
27. Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 3.
28. Ibid., p. 4.
29. Ibid., p. viii.
30. Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, p. 27.
31. Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 12 (emphasis in original). Sharp mentions the following sources of the rulers' power: authority, human resources, skills and knowledge, intangible factors, material resources, and sanctions.
32. Sharp, "Appendix A," p. 105.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid., p. 98.
35. Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, p. 67.
36. Ibid., p. 69.
37. Ibid., pp. 69-70.
38. Sharp, "Appendix A." pp. 102-103.
39. Ibid., p. 92.
40. Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," pp. 81-89, and Bond, Justice Without Violence; Doug Bond and Joe Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action; Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
41. Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," pp. 81-89, and Bond, Justice Without Violence; Doug Bond and Joe Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action; Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
42. Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," pp. 81-89, and Bond, Justice Without Violence; Doug Bond and Joe Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action; Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
43. Bond, "The Nature and Meaning of Nonviolent Direct Action," pp. 81-89, and Bond, Justice Without Violence; Doug Bond and Joe Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action; Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
44. The following presentation relies on Bond, Justice Without Violence, and Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
45. The following presentation relies on Bond, Justice Without Violence, and Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy."
46. Bond, 1994, Justice Without Violence.
47. Bond and Bennett, "The Practice of Democracy," p. 4.
48. Ibid., p. 7.
49. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
50. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
51. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
52. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
53. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
54. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
55. Examples include Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, Negotiating South Africa's Future (New York: St. Martins Press, 1989); Helen Kitchen and J. Coleman Kitchen, eds., South Africa: Twelve Perspectives on the Transition (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994); Steven Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition," Journal of Democracy 4, no. 2, (April 1993), pp. 56-69, The Long Journey: South Africa's Quest for a Negotiated Settlement (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1993), and "South Africa: Divided in a Special Way," in Larry Diamond, Juan L. Linz, and Seymour Martin Lipset, eds., Politics in Developing Countries. Comparing Experiences with Democracy, 2d ed. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995); Peter Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace: South Africa and the National Peace Accord (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 1994); Marina Ottaway, South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1993).
56. See Pauline H. Baker, "A Turbulent Transition," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1990), pp. 8-24; and "Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa: Progress Made in the Implementation of the Declaration on Apartheid and Its Destructive Consequences in Southern Africa," in United Nations, Report of the Secretary General 1990 (1 July 1990: A/44/960). Ottaway, South Africa, p. 63, makes a similar distinction between "first-tier" and "second-tier" actors.
57. See Pauline H. Baker, "A Turbulent Transition," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1990), pp. 8-24; and "Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa: Progress Made in the Implementation of the Declaration on Apartheid and Its Destructive Consequences in Southern Africa," in United Nations, Report of the Secretary General 1990 (1 July 1990: A/44/960). Ottaway, South Africa, p. 63, makes a similar distinction between "first-tier" and "second-tier" actors.
58. See Pauline H. Baker, "A Turbulent Transition," Journal of Democracy 1, no. 4 (Fall 1990), pp. 8-24; and "Policies of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa: Progress Made in the Implementation of the Declaration on Apartheid and Its Destructive Consequences in Southern Africa," in United Nations, Report of the Secretary General 1990 (1 July 1990: A/44/960). Ottaway, South Africa, p. 63, makes a similar distinction between "first-tier" and "second-tier" actors.
59. Robert M. Price, The Apartheid State in Crisis: Political Transformation in South Africa, 1975-1990 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
60. Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition" and The Long Journey; Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace; and Sisk, Democratization in South Africa.
61. Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition" and The Long Journey; Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace; and Sisk, Democratization in South Africa.
62. Friedman, "South Africa's Reluctant Transition" and The Long Journey; Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace; and Sisk, Democratization in South Africa.
63. Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1989); Frederik Van Zyl Slabbert, The System and the Struggle: Reform, Revolt and Reaction in South Africa (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1989).
64. Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1989); Frederik Van Zyl Slabbert, The System and the Struggle: Reform, Revolt and Reaction in South Africa (Johannesburg: Jonathan Bell, 1989).
65. Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa: Policy Papers in International Affairs no. 24 (Berkeley, CA: Univeristy of California, Institute of International Studies, 1985).
66. Mark Orkin, The Struggle and the Future (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1986), p. 33.
67. Price, The Apartheid State in Crisis.
68. Sisk, Democratization in South Africa, pp. 74-75.
69. Gastrow, Bargaining for Peace, p. 19.
70. The NPA had three main objectives: (1) to eliminate political violence by means of a network of peace committees that would serve as peacemaking and peace-building mechanisms at the grassroots level, (2) to promote democratization by creating a climate of greater tolerance that would be conducive to negotiations and establishment of multiparty democracy, and (3) to faciliate reconstruction and development, especially in those communities affected by violence.
71. This is documented in Glenn Adler, Judy Maller, and Edide Webster, "Unions, Direct Action and Transition in South Africa," in Norman Etherington, ed., Peace, Politics and Violence.
72. For an overview of KEDS see Philip Schrodt and Deborah Gerner, "Validity Assessment of a Machine Coded Event Data Set for the Middle East, 1982-92," American Journal of Political Science 38, no. 3 (August 1994), pp. 825-854; and Philip Schrodt, KEDS: Kansas Events Data System (University of Kansas, 1995). For an overview of KEDS/PANDA see Bond and Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action.
73. For an overview of KEDS see Philip Schrodt and Deborah Gerner, "Validity Assessment of a Machine Coded Event Data Set for the Middle East, 1982-92," American Journal of Political Science 38, no. 3 (August 1994), pp. 825-854; and Philip Schrodt, KEDS: Kansas Events Data System (University of Kansas, 1995). For an overview of KEDS/PANDA see Bond and Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action.
74. For an overview of KEDS see Philip Schrodt and Deborah Gerner, "Validity Assessment of a Machine Coded Event Data Set for the Middle East, 1982-92," American Journal of Political Science 38, no. 3 (August 1994), pp. 825-854; and Philip Schrodt, KEDS: Kansas Events Data System (University of Kansas, 1995). For an overview of KEDS/PANDA see Bond and Bond, Protocol for the Assessment of Nonviolent Direct Action.
75. The dataset reports source, source agent, target, target agent (identifying who did what to/with whom), event, place, domain, direct-action mechanism, level of sanction, report context, and issue in contention. The choice of Reuters as the source for the data can be justified on recent findings that Reuters provides a superior number ("yield") of events to local or regional sources. For an overview of these issues see Richard Merritt, "Measuring Events for International Political Analysis," International Interactions 20, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 3-33; and Philip Schrodt, "The Statistical Characteristics of Event Data," International Interactions 20, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 35-53.
76. The dataset reports source, source agent, target, target agent (identifying who did what to/with whom), event, place, domain, direct-action mechanism, level of sanction, report context, and issue in contention. The choice of Reuters as the source for the data can be justified on recent findings that Reuters provides a superior number ("yield") of events to local or regional sources. For an overview of these issues see Richard Merritt, "Measuring Events for International Political Analysis," International Interactions 20, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 3-33; and Philip Schrodt, "The Statistical Characteristics of Event Data," International Interactions 20, no. 1 (Spring 1994), pp. 35-53.
77. For an overview of WEIS see Charles A. McClelland and Gary Hoggard, "Conflict Patterns in the Interactions Among Nations," in James Rosenau, ed., International Politics and Foreign Policy: A Reader in Research and Theory (New York: Free Press, 1969).
78. Joshua S. Goldstein, "A Conflict-Cooperation Scale for WEIS Event Data," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no. 3 (September 1992), pp. 369-385. A conflict/cooperation for WEIS events scale relating directly to South Africa was developed by Koos Van Wyk and Sarah Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," International Affairs Bulletin 15, no. 2 (Summer 1989).The Goldstein scale was used because of its greater degree of detail .
79. Joshua S. Goldstein, "A Conflict-Cooperation Scale for WEIS Event Data," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, no. 3 (September 1992), pp. 369-385. A conflict/cooperation for WEIS events scale relating directly to South Africa was developed by Koos Van Wyk and Sarah Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," International Affairs Bulletin 15, no. 2 (Summer 1989).The Goldstein scale was used because of its greater degree of detail .
80. Systematic and empirical studies of South Africa's foreign policy are also very rare. Examples are Koos Van Wyk, "South Africa's Foreign Policy Behaviour 1977-1987: An Event Analysis," International Affairs Bulletin 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1988), pp. 42-55; Van Wyk and Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," pp. 104-111, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Policy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 3 (September 1993), pp. 382-396, and "Reciprocity and South African Foreign Policy Behavior," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 4 (Fall 1988), pp. 804-814; Henrik Sommer, "Rivals at Risk? Democratization and Interstate Rivalry in Southern Africa," in Gerald Schneider and Patricia Weitsman, eds., Enforcing Cooperation: "Risky States" and the Intergovernmental Management of Conflict (London: Macmillan, forthcoming).
81. Systematic and empirical studies of South Africa's foreign policy are also very rare. Examples are Koos Van Wyk, "South Africa's Foreign Policy Behaviour 1977-1987: An Event Analysis," International Affairs Bulletin 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1988), pp. 42-55; Van Wyk and Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," pp. 104-111, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Policy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 3 (September 1993), pp. 382-396, and "Reciprocity and South African Foreign Policy Behavior," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 4 (Fall 1988), pp. 804-814; Henrik Sommer, "Rivals at Risk? Democratization and Interstate Rivalry in Southern Africa," in Gerald Schneider and Patricia Weitsman, eds., Enforcing Cooperation: "Risky States" and the Intergovernmental Management of Conflict (London: Macmillan, forthcoming).
82. Systematic and empirical studies of South Africa's foreign policy are also very rare. Examples are Koos Van Wyk, "South Africa's Foreign Policy Behaviour 1977-1987: An Event Analysis," International Affairs Bulletin 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1988), pp. 42-55; Van Wyk and Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," pp. 104-111, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Policy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 3 (September 1993), pp. 382-396, and "Reciprocity and South African Foreign Policy Behavior," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 4 (Fall 1988), pp. 804-814; Henrik Sommer, "Rivals at Risk? Democratization and Interstate Rivalry in Southern Africa," in Gerald Schneider and Patricia Weitsman, eds., Enforcing Cooperation: "Risky States" and the Intergovernmental Management of Conflict (London: Macmillan, forthcoming).
83. Systematic and empirical studies of South Africa's foreign policy are also very rare. Examples are Koos Van Wyk, "South Africa's Foreign Policy Behaviour 1977-1987: An Event Analysis," International Affairs Bulletin 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1988), pp. 42-55; Van Wyk and Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," pp. 104-111, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Policy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 3 (September 1993), pp. 382-396, and "Reciprocity and South African Foreign Policy Behavior," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 4 (Fall 1988), pp. 804-814; Henrik Sommer, "Rivals at Risk? Democratization and Interstate Rivalry in Southern Africa," in Gerald Schneider and Patricia Weitsman, eds., Enforcing Cooperation: "Risky States" and the Intergovernmental Management of Conflict (London: Macmillan, forthcoming).
84. Systematic and empirical studies of South Africa's foreign policy are also very rare. Examples are Koos Van Wyk, "South Africa's Foreign Policy Behaviour 1977-1987: An Event Analysis," International Affairs Bulletin 12, no. 3 (Fall, 1988), pp. 42-55; Van Wyk and Radloff, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Relations," pp. 104-111, "Symmetry and Reciprocity in South Africa's Foreign Policy," Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 3 (September 1993), pp. 382-396, and "Reciprocity and South African Foreign Policy Behavior," Social Science Quarterly 74, no. 4 (Fall 1988), pp. 804-814; Henrik Sommer, "Rivals at Risk? Democratization and Interstate Rivalry in Southern Africa," in Gerald Schneider and Patricia Weitsman, eds., Enforcing Cooperation: "Risky States" and the Intergovernmental Management of Conflict (London: Macmillan, forthcoming).