Making networks, remaking the city

Economic Development Quarterly

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 172-187

  Indergaard, Michael ^a  

^a ST JOHN'S UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030530486     PISSN: 08912424     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/089124249601000204     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. This scheme is influenced by Portz's discussion of program implementation and Stoecker's examination of social mobilization. See John Portz, "State Economic Development Programs: The Trials and Tribulations of Implementation," Economic Development Quarterly 7 (1993): 160-71; Randy Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization: The Problem of Identity Convergence in Collective Action," Sociological Quarterly 36 (1995): 111-30.
2. This scheme is influenced by Portz's discussion of program implementation and Stoecker's examination of social mobilization. See John Portz, "State Economic Development Programs: The Trials and Tribulations of Implementation," Economic Development Quarterly 7 (1993): 160-71; Randy Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization: The Problem of Identity Convergence in Collective Action," Sociological Quarterly 36 (1995): 111-30.
3. See Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Michael Best, The New Competition: Institutions of Industrial Restructuring (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); and Charles Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," in Explorations in Economic Sociology, ed. Richard Swedberg (New York: Russell Sage, 1993), pp. 377-402.
4. See Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Michael Best, The New Competition: Institutions of Industrial Restructuring (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); and Charles Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," in Explorations in Economic Sociology, ed. Richard Swedberg (New York: Russell Sage, 1993), pp. 377-402.
5. See Michael Piore and Charles Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide (New York: Basic Books, 1984); Michael Best, The New Competition: Institutions of Industrial Restructuring (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); and Charles Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," in Explorations in Economic Sociology, ed. Richard Swedberg (New York: Russell Sage, 1993), pp. 377-402.
6. Walter Powell, "Neither Market nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization," in Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. B. Straw and L. Cummings (Greenwich, CT: JAI, 1990), p. 300.
7. Ibid., pp. 301-2.
8. Ibid., p. 303.
9. Charles Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform: Rebuilding Firms, the Welfare State, and Unions," Politics & Society 23 (1995): 5-48.
10. Powell, "Neither Market nor Hierarchy," p. 325.
11. Ibid., p. 323.
12. Ibid., pp. 324-5.
13. Ibid., p. 325.
14. Harrison stresses corporate dominance over small firms, whereas Sabel emphasizes corporate uncertainty and the lessening of supplier dependence on particular corporations. See Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
15. Harrison stresses corporate dominance over small firms, whereas Sabel emphasizes corporate uncertainty and the lessening of supplier dependence on particular corporations. See Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
16. See Edward Goodman, Julia Bamford, and Peter Saynor, eds., Small Firms and Industrial Districts in Italy (London: Routledge, 1989); Charles Sabel, "Flexible Specialization and the Re-Emergence of Regional Economies," in Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors, ed. P. Hurst and J. Zeitland (Oxford: Berg, 1989), pp. 17-70; and F. Pyke, G. Becattini, and W. Sengenberger, eds., Industrial Districts and Interfirm Co-operation in Italy (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Office, 1990).
17. See Edward Goodman, Julia Bamford, and Peter Saynor, eds., Small Firms and Industrial Districts in Italy (London: Routledge, 1989); Charles Sabel, "Flexible Specialization and the Re-Emergence of Regional Economies," in Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors, ed. P. Hurst and J. Zeitland (Oxford: Berg, 1989), pp. 17-70; and F. Pyke, G. Becattini, and W. Sengenberger, eds., Industrial Districts and Interfirm Co-operation in Italy (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Office, 1990).
18. See Edward Goodman, Julia Bamford, and Peter Saynor, eds., Small Firms and Industrial Districts in Italy (London: Routledge, 1989); Charles Sabel, "Flexible Specialization and the Re-Emergence of Regional Economies," in Reversing Industrial Decline? Industrial Structure and Policy in Britain and Her Competitors, ed. P. Hurst and J. Zeitland (Oxford: Berg, 1989), pp. 17-70; and F. Pyke, G. Becattini, and W. Sengenberger, eds., Industrial Districts and Interfirm Co-operation in Italy (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Office, 1990).
19. Richard Child Hill and Kuniko Fujita, "Global Interdependence and Urban Restructuring in Japan," in Japanese Cities in the World Economy, ed. Richard Child Hill and Kuniko Fujita (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), p. 288.
20. Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," pp. 386-7.
21. See David Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1988).
22. Michael Porter, "The Rise of the Urban Entrepreneur," Inc. Special Issue: The State of Small Business, Summer 1995, p. 106.
23. Hill and Fujita, "Global Interdependence and Urban Restructuring in Japan," p. 288.
24. Perrow, "Small Firm Networks."
25. See Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy; Michael Porter, "The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City," Harvard Business Review, May-June 1995, pp. 55-71.
26. See Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy; Michael Porter, "The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City," Harvard Business Review, May-June 1995, pp. 55-71.
27. Gregg A. Lichtenstein, A Catalogue of U.S. Manufacturing Networks (Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1992), p. 5.
28. Examples from Lichtenstein's survey include the following: ACEnet, which represents Appalachian Ohio; the Metalworking Consortium, which revolves around the Ravenswood Corridor of Chicago; the Knitwear Industry Center, which serves the Greater Ridgewood district of Queens and Brooklyn; the Technology Coast Manufacturing and Engineering Network, encompassing firms in two Florida industrial parks; and the Center for Design and Manufacturing, which unites tenants in the same building in Brooklyn. See Lichtenstein, A Catalogue of U.S. Manufacturing Networks.
29. Lichtenstein, A Catalogue of U.S. Manufacturing Networks.
30. Robert Friedman, "Networking Comes to America," Entrepreneurial Economic Review 9 (1991): 3.
31. Paola Seremetis, "Country to Country: The Network Learning Curve Steepens," Firm Connections 1 (1993): 2.
32. Michael Storper, "Michael Storper Replies," in Industrial Districts and Interfirm Co-operation in Italy, ed. F. Pyke, G. Becattini, and W. Sengenberger (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Office, 1990), p. 229.
33. Harrison, Lean and Mean, p. 172.
34. David Teece, "Competition, Cooperation, and Innovation," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 18 (1992): 23.
35. Friedman, "Networking Comes to America," p. 3.
36. Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," p. 393.
37. Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
38. Charles Sabel, "Studied Trust: Building New Forms of Cooperation in a Volatile Economy" (Unpublished manuscript, 1990), p. 21.
39. Ibid., p. 24.
40. Ibid., p. 25.
41. Ibid., p. 24.
42. Ibid., p. 21.
43. The Southern Technology Council has worked with 13 states to create service centers as hubs for firm clusters. North Carolina, Arkansas, Illinois, Michigan, Oregon, and Maryland have used challenge grants or brokers to encourage networks. See Stuart Rosenfeld, Competitive Manufacturing (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, Center for Urban Policy Research, 1992), p. 335.
44. C. Richard Hatch, Flexible Manufacturing Networks (Washington, DC: Corporation for Enterprise Development, 1988), p. 22.
45. Ibid.
46. Stuart Rosenfeld, Raymond Daffner, and William Meade, Manufacturing Networks and State Policy in North Carolina: Introducing Change (Research Triangle Park, NC: Southern Technology Council, 1992), p. 4.
47. Lichtenstein, A Catalogue of U.S. Manufacturing Networks, p. 4.
48. Best, The New Competition; Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
49. Best, The New Competition; Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
50. Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
51. Ibid., p. 7.
52. Ibid., pp. 36-7.
53. See John McCarthy and Mayer Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1977): 1212-41; Craig Jenkins, "Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements," Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 527-53.
54. See John McCarthy and Mayer Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1977): 1212-41; Craig Jenkins, "Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements," Annual Review of Sociology 9 (1983): 527-53.
55. See Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization"; D. Snow, E. B. Rochford, Jr., S. Worden, and R. Benford, "Frame Alignment Process, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81.
56. See Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization"; D. Snow, E. B. Rochford, Jr., S. Worden, and R. Benford, "Frame Alignment Process, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81.
57. Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization," p. 113.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. See Hatch, Flexible Manufacturing Networks.
61. Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform."
62. J. Holley and R. Wilkens, Creating Flexible Manufacturing Networks in North America (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1991), p. 9.
63. June Holley and Roger Wilkens, A Market Driven Approach to Flexible Manufacturing Networks (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1991).
64. Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization," pp. 117-8.
65. See Philip Shapiro, "Strategies for Rural Manufacturing Modernization," in Modernizing America's Industrial Base: Opportunities of Action (Ann Arbor, MI: Modernization Forum, 1991), pp. 60-1; S. Rosenfeld, "Rural Perspectives: Linking Networks and Economic Development," Entrepreneurial Economic Review 9 (1991): 28-30; Rosenfeld, Competitive Manufacturing.
66. See Philip Shapiro, "Strategies for Rural Manufacturing Modernization," in Modernizing America's Industrial Base: Opportunities of Action (Ann Arbor, MI: Modernization Forum, 1991), pp. 60-1; S. Rosenfeld, "Rural Perspectives: Linking Networks and Economic Development," Entrepreneurial Economic Review 9 (1991): 28-30; Rosenfeld, Competitive Manufacturing.
67. See Philip Shapiro, "Strategies for Rural Manufacturing Modernization," in Modernizing America's Industrial Base: Opportunities of Action (Ann Arbor, MI: Modernization Forum, 1991), pp. 60-1; S. Rosenfeld, "Rural Perspectives: Linking Networks and Economic Development," Entrepreneurial Economic Review 9 (1991): 28-30; Rosenfeld, Competitive Manufacturing.
68. Portz, "State Economic Development Programs."
69. UAC found over 375 firms to be concentrated in the target area; the great majority employed 100 or fewer workers. There were some noticeable concentrations of manufacturing capacities: 78 firms produced industrial/commercial machinery, and 61 were engaged in metal fabricating. A total of 48 firms founded since 1983 still were operating in the core area.
70. FMN broker, interview with author, Toledo, Ohio, February 20, 1995.
71. Powell, "Neither Market nor Hierarchy."
72. Toledo-area firm owner, telephone interview with author, February 16, 1995.
73. Sue Wuest, FMN project coordinator, telephone conversation with author, March 13, 1995.
74. Ibid.
75. Sue Wuest, FMN project coordinator, telephone conversation with author, April 21, 1995.
76. Mark Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 78 (1973): 1360-80.
77. ACEnet continues to push the rural envelope, as evidenced by new FMN-related business start-up and training programs. However, ACEnet may be the exception that proves the rule. Previous to the FMN project, ACEnet was already working with firms, and its recent efforts are mobilizing participants concentrated within a one-and-a-half-county area - not eleven counties. See ACEnet, A Market-Niche Approach to Microenterprise Development (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1993); and Idem, A New Approach to Training and Job Creation (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1993).
78. ACEnet continues to push the rural envelope, as evidenced by new FMN-related business start-up and training programs. However, ACEnet may be the exception that proves the rule. Previous to the FMN project, ACEnet was already working with firms, and its recent efforts are mobilizing participants concentrated within a one-and-a-half-county area - not eleven counties. See ACEnet, A Market-Niche Approach to Microenterprise Development (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1993); and Idem, A New Approach to Training and Job Creation (Athens, OH: ACEnet, 1993).
79. A classification of agglomerations by Luria, Cole, and Baum is used to create a typology of major metropolitan areas: (1) areas without large industrial concentrations; (2) areas with large industrial concentrations (69 metropolitan areas with 50,000 or more manufacturing jobs); (3) areas whose industrial base is a large part of the local economy and substantially involves core industries (core industries produce traded goods and require manufactured inputs; 39 areas qualify, including Toledo); and (4) areas in which a high percentage of suppliers serve one core industry. SMEs depend on a few corporations and need help finding markets. A total of 22 areas are core industrial agglomerations. See Dan Luria, Roland Cole, and Alan Baum, "Fixing the Manufacturing Base," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 13 (Fall 1994): 571-80.
80. Porter, "The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City."
81. Negrey and Zickel, using data from 1972 to 1987, provide an MSA typology: (1) Classic deindustrializing centers, 19 MSAs (e.g., Detroit, Cleveland, New York) lost manufacturing jobs and population; (2) stable centers in transition, 38 MSAs (e.g., Toledo, Rochester, Chicago) lost manufacturing jobs but gained some population; (3) innovation centers, 11 MSAs (e.g., Witchita, Ann Arbor, Nassau-Suffolk) had increases in manufacturing jobs and low population gains; (4) new services centers, 15 MSAs (e.g., Atlanta, Dallas, Oakland) lost manufacturing jobs but had high population gains; and (5) new manufacturing centers, 54 MSAs (e.g., Austin, Mobile, Los Angeles-Long Beach) had gains in manufacturing jobs and high population gains. See Cynthia Negrey and Mary Beth Zickel, "Industrial Shifts and Uneven Development," Urban Affairs Quarterly 30 (1994): 27-47.
82. Charles Sabel, "A Measure of Federalism" (Paper prepared for the workshop Manufacturing Modernization: Evaluation Practices, Methods, and Results, Atlanta, September 18-20, 1994).
83. Stoecker, "Community, Movement, Organization."
84. Perrow, "Small Firm Networks," pp. 397-8.
85. Sabel, "Bootstrapping Reform," p. 32.