The ideological development of the parties in Washington, 1947-1994

Polity

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 273-292

  Taylor, Andrew J ^a  

^a NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030527163     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235303     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. 1. E. J. Dionne, Jr., Why Americans Hate Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "The Polarization of American Politics," Journal of Politics, 46 (November 1984): 1061-79.
2. 1. E. J. Dionne, Jr., Why Americans Hate Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "The Polarization of American Politics," Journal of Politics, 46 (November 1984): 1061-79.
3. 2. Alberto Alesina and Howard Rosenthal, Partisan Politics, Divided Government, and the Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 43-82; Morris P. Fiorina, Divided Government, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1996), pp. 72-81.
4. 2. Alberto Alesina and Howard Rosenthal, Partisan Politics, Divided Government, and the Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 43-82; Morris P. Fiorina, Divided Government, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1996), pp. 72-81.
5. 3. Daniel Ingberman and John Villani, "An Institutional Theory of Divided Government and Party Polarization," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (May 1993): 429-71.
6. 4. Gerald C. Wright, "The Meaning of 'Party' in Congressional Roll-Call Voting" (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, April 14-17, 1994).
7. 5. A. Lawrence Chickering, Beyond Left and Right: Breaking the Political Stalemate (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies Press, 1993); William S. Maddox and Stuart A. Lilie, Beyond Liberal and Conservative: Reassessing the Political Spectrum (Washington, DC: The Cato Institute, 1984).
8. 5. A. Lawrence Chickering, Beyond Left and Right: Breaking the Political Stalemate (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies Press, 1993); William S. Maddox and Stuart A. Lilie, Beyond Liberal and Conservative: Reassessing the Political Spectrum (Washington, DC: The Cato Institute, 1984).
9. 6. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 194-240; John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, "Theories of the Party in the Legislature and the Transition to Republican Rule in the House" (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, August 31-September 3, 1995); Gary W. Cox and Mathew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Party unity votes are those votes in Congress on which a majority of Democrats oppose a majority of Republicans.
10. 6. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 194-240; John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, "Theories of the Party in the Legislature and the Transition to Republican Rule in the House" (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, August 31-September 3, 1995); Gary W. Cox and Mathew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Party unity votes are those votes in Congress on which a majority of Democrats oppose a majority of Republicans.
11. 6. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 194-240; John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, "Theories of the Party in the Legislature and the Transition to Republican Rule in the House" (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, August 31-September 3, 1995); Gary W. Cox and Mathew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Party unity votes are those votes in Congress on which a majority of Democrats oppose a majority of Republicans.
12. 6. John H. Aldrich, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 194-240; John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, "Theories of the Party in the Legislature and the Transition to Republican Rule in the House" (paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, August 31-September 3, 1995); Gary W. Cox and Mathew D. McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan: Party Government in the House (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); David W. Rohde, Parties and Leaders in the Postreform House (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). Party unity votes are those votes in Congress on which a majority of Democrats oppose a majority of Republicans.
13. 7. Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "Ideology, Party, and Voting in the U.S. Congress, 1959-1980," American Political Science Review, 79 (June 1985): 373-99; Jerrold E. Schneider, Ideological Coalitions in Congress (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979); William R. Shaffer, Party and Ideology in the United States Congress (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980); William R. Shaffer, "Party and Ideology in the United States House of Representatives," Western Political Quarterly, 35 (March 1982): 92-106.
14. 7. Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "Ideology, Party, and Voting in the U.S. Congress, 1959-1980," American Political Science Review, 79 (June 1985): 373-99; Jerrold E. Schneider, Ideological Coalitions in Congress (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979); William R. Shaffer, Party and Ideology in the United States Congress (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980); William R. Shaffer, "Party and Ideology in the United States House of Representatives," Western Political Quarterly, 35 (March 1982): 92-106.
15. 7. Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "Ideology, Party, and Voting in the U.S. Congress, 1959-1980," American Political Science Review, 79 (June 1985): 373-99; Jerrold E. Schneider, Ideological Coalitions in Congress (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979); William R. Shaffer, Party and Ideology in the United States Congress (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980); William R. Shaffer, "Party and Ideology in the United States House of Representatives," Western Political Quarterly, 35 (March 1982): 92-106.
16. 7. Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "Ideology, Party, and Voting in the U.S. Congress, 1959-1980," American Political Science Review, 79 (June 1985): 373-99; Jerrold E. Schneider, Ideological Coalitions in Congress (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979); William R. Shaffer, Party and Ideology in the United States Congress (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1980); William R. Shaffer, "Party and Ideology in the United States House of Representatives," Western Political Quarterly, 35 (March 1982): 92-106.
17. 8. Richard Herrera, "The Crosswinds of Change: Sources of Change in the Democratic and Republican Parties," Political Research Quarterly, 48 (June 1995): 291-312; Walter J. Stone, Ronald B. Rapoport, and Alan I. Abramowitz, "The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s," in The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System, ed. L. Sandy Maisel (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), pp. 67-93.
18. 8. Richard Herrera, "The Crosswinds of Change: Sources of Change in the Democratic and Republican Parties," Political Research Quarterly, 48 (June 1995): 291-312; Walter J. Stone, Ronald B. Rapoport, and Alan I. Abramowitz, "The Reagan Revolution and Party Polarization in the 1980s," in The Parties Respond: Changes in the American Party System, ed. L. Sandy Maisel (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), pp. 67-93.
19. 9. Studies that do discuss presidential ideology across time do so tangentially. See, for example, Sidney M. Milkis, The President and the Parties: The Transformation of the American Party System Since the New Deal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to George Bush (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1993). Similarly, studies of ideology discuss presidents tangentially. See, for example, Charles W. Dunn and J. David Woodard, American Conservatism from Burke to Bush (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991).
20. 9. Studies that do discuss presidential ideology across time do so tangentially. See, for example, Sidney M. Milkis, The President and the Parties: The Transformation of the American Party System Since the New Deal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to George Bush (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1993). Similarly, studies of ideology discuss presidents tangentially. See, for example, Charles W. Dunn and J. David Woodard, American Conservatism from Burke to Bush (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991).
21. 9. Studies that do discuss presidential ideology across time do so tangentially. See, for example, Sidney M. Milkis, The President and the Parties: The Transformation of the American Party System Since the New Deal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Stephen Skowronek, The Politics Presidents Make: Leadership from John Adams to George Bush (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1993). Similarly, studies of ideology discuss presidents tangentially. See, for example, Charles W. Dunn and J. David Woodard, American Conservatism from Burke to Bush (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991).
22. 10. John Plamenetz, Ideology (New York: Praeger, 1970), p. 15.
23. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
24. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
25. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
26. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
27. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
28. 11. Joseph P. Kalt and Mark A. Zupan, "The Apparent Ideological Behavior of Legislators: Testing Principal-Agent Slack in Political Institutions," Journal of Law and Economics, 33 (April 1990): 103-31; James B. Kau and Paul H. Rubin, "Ideology, Voting, and Shirking," Public Choice, 76 (June 1993): 151-72; Krishna K. Ladha, "Coalitions in Congressional Voting," Public Choice, 78 (January 1994): 43-63; Keith T. Poole and R. Steven Daniels, "A Spatial Model for Legislative Roll-Call Analysis," American Journal of Political Science, 29 (May 1985): 357-84; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "Patterns of Congressional Voting," American Journal of Political Science, 35 (February 1991): 228-78; Keith T. Poole and Howard Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing Roll-Call Votes in the U.S. Congress," American Political Science Review, 85 (September 1991): 955-75.
29. 12. Poole and Rosenthal, "On Dimensionalizing."
30. 13. Kenneth Koford, "Dimensions in Congressional Voting," American Political Science Review, 83 (September 1989): 949-62; Clyde Wilcox and Aage Clausen, "The Dimensionality of Roll-Call Voting Reconsidered," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16 (August 1991): 393-406.
31. 13. Kenneth Koford, "Dimensions in Congressional Voting," American Political Science Review, 83 (September 1989): 949-62; Clyde Wilcox and Aage Clausen, "The Dimensionality of Roll-Call Voting Reconsidered," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16 (August 1991): 393-406.
32. 14. Cox and McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan, 78-81; D. Roderick Kiewiet and Langche Zeng, "An Analysis of Congressional Career Decisions, 1947-1986," American Political Science Review, 87 (December 1993): 928-41.
33. 14. Cox and McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan, 78-81; D. Roderick Kiewiet and Langche Zeng, "An Analysis of Congressional Career Decisions, 1947-1986," American Political Science Review, 87 (December 1993): 928-41.
34. 15. J. N. Heckman and James L. Snyder, Jr., "A Linear Factor Model of Roll-Call Voting," University of Chicago, unpublished.
35. 16. Alesina and Rosenthal, Partisan Politics, pp. 35, 39.
36. 17. Linda L. Fowler, "How Interest Groups Select Issues for Rating Voting Records of Members of the U.S. Congress," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 7 (August 1982): 401-13; Richard Hall and Bernard Grofman, "The Committee Assignment Process and Conditional Nature of Committee Bias," American Political Science Review, 84 (December 1990): 1149-66; James M. Snyder, Jr., "Artificial Extremism in Interest Group Ratings," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 17 (August 1992): 319-45.
37. 17. Linda L. Fowler, "How Interest Groups Select Issues for Rating Voting Records of Members of the U.S. Congress," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 7 (August 1982): 401-13; Richard Hall and Bernard Grofman, "The Committee Assignment Process and Conditional Nature of Committee Bias," American Political Science Review, 84 (December 1990): 1149-66; James M. Snyder, Jr., "Artificial Extremism in Interest Group Ratings," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 17 (August 1992): 319-45.
38. 17. Linda L. Fowler, "How Interest Groups Select Issues for Rating Voting Records of Members of the U.S. Congress," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 7 (August 1982): 401-13; Richard Hall and Bernard Grofman, "The Committee Assignment Process and Conditional Nature of Committee Bias," American Political Science Review, 84 (December 1990): 1149-66; James M. Snyder, Jr., "Artificial Extremism in Interest Group Ratings," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 17 (August 1992): 319-45.
39. 18. Richard T. Carson and Joe Oppenheimer, "A Method of Estimating the Personal Ideology of Political Representatives," American Political Science Review, 78 (March 1984): 163-78; John W. Kingdon, Congressmen's Voting Decisions, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989); Laura I. Langbein, "Shirking and Ideology: Defense in the Senate," Congress and the Presidency, 22 (Spring 1995): 35-55; Peter M. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions from Roll-Call Data?," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 15 (August 1990): 311-40.
40. 18. Richard T. Carson and Joe Oppenheimer, "A Method of Estimating the Personal Ideology of Political Representatives," American Political Science Review, 78 (March 1984): 163-78; John W. Kingdon, Congressmen's Voting Decisions, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989); Laura I. Langbein, "Shirking and Ideology: Defense in the Senate," Congress and the Presidency, 22 (Spring 1995): 35-55; Peter M. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions from Roll-Call Data?," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 15 (August 1990): 311-40.
41. 18. Richard T. Carson and Joe Oppenheimer, "A Method of Estimating the Personal Ideology of Political Representatives," American Political Science Review, 78 (March 1984): 163-78; John W. Kingdon, Congressmen's Voting Decisions, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989); Laura I. Langbein, "Shirking and Ideology: Defense in the Senate," Congress and the Presidency, 22 (Spring 1995): 35-55; Peter M. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions from Roll-Call Data?," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 15 (August 1990): 311-40.
42. 18. Richard T. Carson and Joe Oppenheimer, "A Method of Estimating the Personal Ideology of Political Representatives," American Political Science Review, 78 (March 1984): 163-78; John W. Kingdon, Congressmen's Voting Decisions, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989); Laura I. Langbein, "Shirking and Ideology: Defense in the Senate," Congress and the Presidency, 22 (Spring 1995): 35-55; Peter M. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions from Roll-Call Data?," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 15 (August 1990): 311-40.
43. 19. R. Steven Daniels, "Rehabilitating the Raters: An Assessment of Interest Group Ratings of Congress," Congress and the Presidency, 16 (Spring 1989): 23-36; Keith T. Poole, "Dimensions of Interest Group Evaluation of the U.S. Senate, 1969-1978," American Journal of Political Science, 25 (February 1981): 49-67; Poole and Daniels, "A Spatial Model"; William R. Shaffer, "Rating the Performance of the ADA in the U.S. Congress," Western Political Quarterly, 42 (March 1989): 33-51.
44. 19. R. Steven Daniels, "Rehabilitating the Raters: An Assessment of Interest Group Ratings of Congress," Congress and the Presidency, 16 (Spring 1989): 23-36; Keith T. Poole, "Dimensions of Interest Group Evaluation of the U.S. Senate, 1969-1978," American Journal of Political Science, 25 (February 1981): 49-67; Poole and Daniels, "A Spatial Model"; William R. Shaffer, "Rating the Performance of the ADA in the U.S. Congress," Western Political Quarterly, 42 (March 1989): 33-51.
45. 19. R. Steven Daniels, "Rehabilitating the Raters: An Assessment of Interest Group Ratings of Congress," Congress and the Presidency, 16 (Spring 1989): 23-36; Keith T. Poole, "Dimensions of Interest Group Evaluation of the U.S. Senate, 1969-1978," American Journal of Political Science, 25 (February 1981): 49-67; Poole and Daniels, "A Spatial Model"; William R. Shaffer, "Rating the Performance of the ADA in the U.S. Congress," Western Political Quarterly, 42 (March 1989): 33-51.
46. 19. R. Steven Daniels, "Rehabilitating the Raters: An Assessment of Interest Group Ratings of Congress," Congress and the Presidency, 16 (Spring 1989): 23-36; Keith T. Poole, "Dimensions of Interest Group Evaluation of the U.S. Senate, 1969-1978," American Journal of Political Science, 25 (February 1981): 49-67; Poole and Daniels, "A Spatial Model"; William R. Shaffer, "Rating the Performance of the ADA in the U.S. Congress," Western Political Quarterly, 42 (March 1989): 33-51.
47. 20. Cox and McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan, pp. 78-81, 206-13; John Londregan and James M. Snyder, Jr., "Comparing Committee and Floor Preferences," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 19 (May 1994): 233-66.
48. 20. Cox and McCubbins, Legislative Leviathan, pp. 78-81, 206-13; John Londregan and James M. Snyder, Jr., "Comparing Committee and Floor Preferences," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 19 (May 1994): 233-66.
49. 21. Keith Krehbiel, "Are Congressional Committees Composed of Preference Outliers?," American Political Science Review, 84 (March 1990): 152-53.
50. 22. R. A. N. Smith, Richard Herrera, and Cheryl Herrera, "The Measurement Characteristics of Congressional Roll-Call Indexes," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 15 (May 1990): 283-95.
51. 23. Keith Krehbiel, "Deference, Extremism, and Interest Group Ratings," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 19 (February 1994): 61-77.
52. 24. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions?"
53. 25. Daniels, "Rehabilitating the Raters."
54. 26. Richard Herrera, Thomas Epperlein, and Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Stability of Congressional Roll-Call Indexes," Political Research Quarterly, 48 (June 1995): 403-16.
55. 27. This is the name given for the organization of all partisans in a chamber. The House Democrats call themselves a caucus, but I shall use the term conference in my discussion of all four congressional parties.
56. 28. Bernard Grofman, Robert Griffin, and Amihai Glazer, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House? Another Look," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16 (May 1991): 281-95; Samuel Kernell, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House?" Journal of Politics, 35 (May 1973): 332-66; Nicol C. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans, From 1952 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 174-95.
57. 28. Bernard Grofman, Robert Griffin, and Amihai Glazer, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House? Another Look," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16 (May 1991): 281-95; Samuel Kernell, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House?" Journal of Politics, 35 (May 1973): 332-66; Nicol C. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans, From 1952 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 174-95.
58. 28. Bernard Grofman, Robert Griffin, and Amihai Glazer, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House? Another Look," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 16 (May 1991): 281-95; Samuel Kernell, "Is the Senate More Liberal Than the House?" Journal of Politics, 35 (May 1973): 332-66; Nicol C. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans, From 1952 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 174-95.
59. 29. Edward G. Carmines and James A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), pp. 59-88.
60. 30. This problem relates to Peter Van Doren's worries about ADA ratings. Van Doren, "Can We Learn the Causes of Congressional Decisions?"
61. 31. It has been argued that since the late 1940s, southern members of Congress have been more conservative than their northern counterparts on economic as well as civil rights issues. See, for example, Everett Carll Ladd, Jr. with Charles D. Hadley, Transformations of the American Party System (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), p. 168; Barbara Sinclair, Congressional Realignment, 1925-1978 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), pp. 73-81.
62. 31. It has been argued that since the late 1940s, southern members of Congress have been more conservative than their northern counterparts on economic as well as civil rights issues. See, for example, Everett Carll Ladd, Jr. with Charles D. Hadley, Transformations of the American Party System (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), p. 168; Barbara Sinclair, Congressional Realignment, 1925-1978 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), pp. 73-81.
63. 32. Samuel C. Patterson and Gregory A. Caldeira, "Party Voting in the United States Congress," British Journal of Political Science, 18 (January 1988): 122.
64. 33. Because of the dearth of survey data at the district level, much of this research examines the roll-call responses of individual legislators to election results. For a recent example of this approach, see Robert S. Erikson and Gerald C. Wright, "Voters, Candidates, and Issues in Congressional Elections," in Congress Reconsidered, 5th ed., ed. Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1993), pp. 91-114.
65. 34. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York: HarperCollins, 1957).
66. 35. James A. Stimson, Public Opinion in America: Moods, Cycles, and Swings (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991).
67. 36. Stimson standardizes scores by taking into account the fact that question wordings, issues important to commercial firms, and the sheer volume of survey data change dramatically during the 1956-to-1989 period. See Public Opinion in America, pp. 33-60.
68. 37. For the Senate models, the years 1981-1986 inclusive are coded as unified government.
69. 38. Ingberman and Villani, "An Institutional Theory of Divided Government."
70. 39. R. V. Bartlett, "The Marginality Hypothesis: Electoral Insecurity, Self-interest, and Voting Behavior," American Politics Quarterly, 7 (October 1979): 498-508; W. Wayne Shannon, Party Constituency, and Congressional Voting: A Study of Legislative Behavior in the United States House of Representatives (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), pp. 157-70. Analysis of the "Watergate class" that significantly augmented the Democratic caucus in the House, for example, reveals these legislators to be more conservative than their more senior colleagues. Michael B. Berkman, The State Roots of National Politics: Congress and the Tax Agenda, 1978-1986 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), pp. 117-26; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1984), pp. 32-49.
71. 39. R. V. Bartlett, "The Marginality Hypothesis: Electoral Insecurity, Self-interest, and Voting Behavior," American Politics Quarterly, 7 (October 1979): 498-508; W. Wayne Shannon, Party Constituency, and Congressional Voting: A Study of Legislative Behavior in the United States House of Representatives (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), pp. 157-70. Analysis of the "Watergate class" that significantly augmented the Democratic caucus in the House, for example, reveals these legislators to be more conservative than their more senior colleagues. Michael B. Berkman, The State Roots of National Politics: Congress and the Tax Agenda, 1978-1986 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), pp. 117-26; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1984), pp. 32-49.
72. 39. R. V. Bartlett, "The Marginality Hypothesis: Electoral Insecurity, Self-interest, and Voting Behavior," American Politics Quarterly, 7 (October 1979): 498-508; W. Wayne Shannon, Party Constituency, and Congressional Voting: A Study of Legislative Behavior in the United States House of Representatives (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), pp. 157-70. Analysis of the "Watergate class" that significantly augmented the Democratic caucus in the House, for example, reveals these legislators to be more conservative than their more senior colleagues. Michael B. Berkman, The State Roots of National Politics: Congress and the Tax Agenda, 1978-1986 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), pp. 117-26; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1984), pp. 32-49.
73. 39. R. V. Bartlett, "The Marginality Hypothesis: Electoral Insecurity, Self-interest, and Voting Behavior," American Politics Quarterly, 7 (October 1979): 498-508; W. Wayne Shannon, Party Constituency, and Congressional Voting: A Study of Legislative Behavior in the United States House of Representatives (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), pp. 157-70. Analysis of the "Watergate class" that significantly augmented the Democratic caucus in the House, for example, reveals these legislators to be more conservative than their more senior colleagues. Michael B. Berkman, The State Roots of National Politics: Congress and the Tax Agenda, 1978-1986 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993), pp. 117-26; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1984), pp. 32-49.
74. 40. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans.
75. 41. See, for example, Roger H. Davidson, "The New Centralization on Capitol Hill," The Review of Politics, 50 (Summer 1988): 345-64; Daniel J. Palazzolo, "From Decentralization to Centralization: Members' Changing Expectations for House Leaders," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Roger H. Davidson (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 112-26; Rohde, Parties and Leaders; Barbara Sinclair, "The Emergence of Strong Leadership in the 1980s House of Representatives," Journal of Politics, 54 (August 1992): 657-84.
76. 41. See, for example, Roger H. Davidson, "The New Centralization on Capitol Hill," The Review of Politics, 50 (Summer 1988): 345-64; Daniel J. Palazzolo, "From Decentralization to Centralization: Members' Changing Expectations for House Leaders," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Roger H. Davidson (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 112-26; Rohde, Parties and Leaders; Barbara Sinclair, "The Emergence of Strong Leadership in the 1980s House of Representatives," Journal of Politics, 54 (August 1992): 657-84.
77. 41. See, for example, Roger H. Davidson, "The New Centralization on Capitol Hill," The Review of Politics, 50 (Summer 1988): 345-64; Daniel J. Palazzolo, "From Decentralization to Centralization: Members' Changing Expectations for House Leaders," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Roger H. Davidson (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 112-26; Rohde, Parties and Leaders; Barbara Sinclair, "The Emergence of Strong Leadership in the 1980s House of Representatives," Journal of Politics, 54 (August 1992): 657-84.
78. 41. See, for example, Roger H. Davidson, "The New Centralization on Capitol Hill," The Review of Politics, 50 (Summer 1988): 345-64; Daniel J. Palazzolo, "From Decentralization to Centralization: Members' Changing Expectations for House Leaders," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Roger H. Davidson (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 112-26; Rohde, Parties and Leaders; Barbara Sinclair, "The Emergence of Strong Leadership in the 1980s House of Representatives," Journal of Politics, 54 (August 1992): 657-84.
79. 42. For more on why congressional reform has affected the House much more than the Senate, see Barbara Sinclair, The Transformation of the U.S. Senate (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); Steven S. Smith, "The Senate in the Postreform Era," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Davidson, pp. 169-92.
80. 42. For more on why congressional reform has affected the House much more than the Senate, see Barbara Sinclair, The Transformation of the U.S. Senate (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989); Steven S. Smith, "The Senate in the Postreform Era," in The Postreform Congress, ed. Davidson, pp. 169-92.
81. 43. This corroborates the findings of a recent examination of the policy activity of Congress as an institution and public opinion. That study also found a relationship between changes in national public opinion and macro-level behavior in Congress. James A. Stimson, Michael B. MacKuen, and Robert S. Erikson, "Dynamic Representation," American Political Science Review, 89 (September 1995): 543-65.
82. 44. For an overview of this literature, see Gary C. Jacobson, The Electoral Origins of Divided Government: Competition in U.S. House Elections, 1946-1988 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990).
83. 45. Charles S. Bullock III, "Congressional Voting and the Mobilization of the Black Electorate in the South," Journal of Politics, 43 (August 1981): 662-82; Richard J. Timpone, "Mass Mobilization or Government Intervention? The Growth of Black Registration in the South," Journal of Politics, 57 (May 1995): 425-42; Kenny J. Whitby, "Voting Behavior of Southern Congressmen: The Interaction of Race and Urbanization," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 10 (November 1985): 505-17.
84. 45. Charles S. Bullock III, "Congressional Voting and the Mobilization of the Black Electorate in the South," Journal of Politics, 43 (August 1981): 662-82; Richard J. Timpone, "Mass Mobilization or Government Intervention? The Growth of Black Registration in the South," Journal of Politics, 57 (May 1995): 425-42; Kenny J. Whitby, "Voting Behavior of Southern Congressmen: The Interaction of Race and Urbanization," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 10 (November 1985): 505-17.
85. 45. Charles S. Bullock III, "Congressional Voting and the Mobilization of the Black Electorate in the South," Journal of Politics, 43 (August 1981): 662-82; Richard J. Timpone, "Mass Mobilization or Government Intervention? The Growth of Black Registration in the South," Journal of Politics, 57 (May 1995): 425-42; Kenny J. Whitby, "Voting Behavior of Southern Congressmen: The Interaction of Race and Urbanization," Legislative Studies Quarterly, 10 (November 1985): 505-17.
86. 46. Kevin A. Hill, "Does the Creation of Majority Black Districts Aid Republicans? An Analysis of the 1992 Congressional Elections in Eight Southern States," Journal of Politics, 57 (May 1995): 384-401.
87. 47. Edward G. Carmines and Harold W. Stanley, "Ideological Realignment in the Contemporary South: Where Have All the Conservatives Gone?," in The Disappearing South? Studies in Regional Change and Continuity, ed. Robert P. Steed, Lawrence W. Moreland, and Tod A. Baker (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990), pp. 21-33; Richard Fleisher, "Explaining the Change in the Roll-Call Voting Behavior of Southern Democrats," Journal of Politics, 55 (May 1993): 327-41.
88. 47. Edward G. Carmines and Harold W. Stanley, "Ideological Realignment in the Contemporary South: Where Have All the Conservatives Gone?," in The Disappearing South? Studies in Regional Change and Continuity, ed. Robert P. Steed, Lawrence W. Moreland, and Tod A. Baker (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990), pp. 21-33; Richard Fleisher, "Explaining the Change in the Roll-Call Voting Behavior of Southern Democrats," Journal of Politics, 55 (May 1993): 327-41.
89. 48. Quoted in Andrew Taylor, "Southern Democrats May Score if Fading Alliance Dissolves," Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, December 19, 1992, p. 3848.
90. 49. This method has been used by others. Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 164-65; Gary King and Lyn Ragsdale, The Elusive Executive: Discovering Statistical Patterns in the Presidency (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1988), pp. 56-57; Andrew J. Taylor, "The Ideological Development of the Modern Republican President," Presidential Studies Quarterly, 26 (Spring 1996) 374-79; Mark A. Zupan, "Measuring the Ideological Preferences of U.S. Presidents: A Proposed (Extremely Simple) Method," Public Choice, 73 (April 1992): 351-61.
91. 49. This method has been used by others. Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 164-65; Gary King and Lyn Ragsdale, The Elusive Executive: Discovering Statistical Patterns in the Presidency (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1988), pp. 56-57; Andrew J. Taylor, "The Ideological Development of the Modern Republican President," Presidential Studies Quarterly, 26 (Spring 1996) 374-79; Mark A. Zupan, "Measuring the Ideological Preferences of U.S. Presidents: A Proposed (Extremely Simple) Method," Public Choice, 73 (April 1992): 351-61.
92. 49. This method has been used by others. Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 164-65; Gary King and Lyn Ragsdale, The Elusive Executive: Discovering Statistical Patterns in the Presidency (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1988), pp. 56-57; Andrew J. Taylor, "The Ideological Development of the Modern Republican President," Presidential Studies Quarterly, 26 (Spring 1996) 374-79; Mark A. Zupan, "Measuring the Ideological Preferences of U.S. Presidents: A Proposed (Extremely Simple) Method," Public Choice, 73 (April 1992): 351-61.
93. 49. This method has been used by others. Jon R. Bond and Richard Fleisher, The President in the Legislative Arena (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 164-65; Gary King and Lyn Ragsdale, The Elusive Executive: Discovering Statistical Patterns in the Presidency (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1988), pp. 56-57; Andrew J. Taylor, "The Ideological Development of the Modern Republican President," Presidential Studies Quarterly, 26 (Spring 1996) 374-79; Mark A. Zupan, "Measuring the Ideological Preferences of U.S. Presidents: A Proposed (Extremely Simple) Method," Public Choice, 73 (April 1992): 351-61.
94. 50. The second method obviously equates presidential silence with moderation. Although it is quite reasonable to believe that a president who bites his tongue on an issue is less of an ideologue than one who takes a stand, presidential silence may also indicate a weakness with using Congressional Quarterly data. By way of example, Congressional Quarterly did not recognize President Reagan to have taken stands on votes that concerned sanctions on South Africa, school prayer, abortion, and the exclusionary rule because he had not addressed his thoughts on these issues to the specific roll calls in question. The well-publicized thoughts of the president, however, suggested that he disagreed with the ADA on these issues.
95. 51. I have discussed ideological change in the Republican presidency elsewhere. See Taylor, "The Ideological Development of the Modern Republican President."
96. 52. William Cavala, "Changing the Rules Changes the Game: Party Reform and the 1972 California Delegation to the Democratic National Convention," American Political Science Review, 68 (March 1974): 27-42; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality; Jeane Kirkpatrick, The New Presidential Elite (New York: Russell Sage Foundation and the Twentieth Century Fund, 1976); Nelson W. Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
97. 52. William Cavala, "Changing the Rules Changes the Game: Party Reform and the 1972 California Delegation to the Democratic National Convention," American Political Science Review, 68 (March 1974): 27-42; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality; Jeane Kirkpatrick, The New Presidential Elite (New York: Russell Sage Foundation and the Twentieth Century Fund, 1976); Nelson W. Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
98. 52. William Cavala, "Changing the Rules Changes the Game: Party Reform and the 1972 California Delegation to the Democratic National Convention," American Political Science Review, 68 (March 1974): 27-42; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality; Jeane Kirkpatrick, The New Presidential Elite (New York: Russell Sage Foundation and the Twentieth Century Fund, 1976); Nelson W. Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
99. 52. William Cavala, "Changing the Rules Changes the Game: Party Reform and the 1972 California Delegation to the Democratic National Convention," American Political Science Review, 68 (March 1974): 27-42; Thomas Byrne Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality; Jeane Kirkpatrick, The New Presidential Elite (New York: Russell Sage Foundation and the Twentieth Century Fund, 1976); Nelson W. Polsby, Consequences of Party Reform (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
100. 53. Donald Wittman, "Spatial Strategies When Candidates Have Policy Preferences," in Advances in the Spatial Theory of Voting, ed. James M. Enlow and Melvin J. Hinich (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 66-98.
101. 54. For an explanation of the delegate and trustee approach to representation, see Hanna Fenichel Pitkin, The Concept of Representation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 112-43.
102. 55. David R. Mayhew, Congress: The Electoral Connection (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974), p. 27.
103. 56. Andrew J. Taylor, "Understanding Madison's Curse: Divided Government and Domestic Policy, 1955-1992" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, NY, September 1-4, 1994); Andrew J. Taylor, "Divided Government, Domestic Policy, and Political Change, 1955-1992" (Ph.D. dis., University of Connecticut, 1995).
104. 56. Andrew J. Taylor, "Understanding Madison's Curse: Divided Government and Domestic Policy, 1955-1992" (paper presented to the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, New York, NY, September 1-4, 1994); Andrew J. Taylor, "Divided Government, Domestic Policy, and Political Change, 1955-1992" (Ph.D. dis., University of Connecticut, 1995).