Burma and the Strategic Competition between China and India

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 213-230

  Selth, Andrew ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0030519921     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402399608437635     Document Type: Article

References (47)

1. Following the suppression of the 1988 pro-democracy demonstrations and the creation of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), Burma's official name was changed from the post-1974 form, the 'Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma', back to the 'Union of Burma', which had been adopted after Burma received independence from Britain in 1948. In July 1989 the military regime changed the name once again, this time to the 'Union of Myanmar' (or 'Myanmar Naingngan'), a direct transliteration of the official name in the Burmese language). At the same time, other place names were changed to conform to the original Burmese. In this article the better-known forms, for example Burma instead of Myanmar, and Rangoon instead of Yangon, have been retained for ease of recognition.
2. See e.g. P. Stobdan, 'China's Forays into Burma - Implication for India', Strategic Analysis 16/1 (April 1993) pp.21-37; D.I. Steinberg, 'Myanmar as Nexus: Sino-Indian Rivalries on the Frontier', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism (formerly Terrorism) 16/1 (1993) pp.1-8; and Mohan Malik, 'Sino-Indian Rivalry in Myanmar: Implications for Regional Security', Contemporary Southeast Asia 16/2 (Sept. 1994) pp.137-56.
3. See e.g. P. Stobdan, 'China's Forays into Burma - Implication for India', Strategic Analysis 16/1 (April 1993) pp.21-37; D.I. Steinberg, 'Myanmar as Nexus: Sino-Indian Rivalries on the Frontier', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism (formerly Terrorism) 16/1 (1993) pp.1-8; and Mohan Malik, 'Sino-Indian Rivalry in Myanmar: Implications for Regional Security', Contemporary Southeast Asia 16/2 (Sept. 1994) pp.137-56.
4. See e.g. P. Stobdan, 'China's Forays into Burma - Implication for India', Strategic Analysis 16/1 (April 1993) pp.21-37; D.I. Steinberg, 'Myanmar as Nexus: Sino-Indian Rivalries on the Frontier', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism (formerly Terrorism) 16/1 (1993) pp.1-8; and Mohan Malik, 'Sino-Indian Rivalry in Myanmar: Implications for Regional Security', Contemporary Southeast Asia 16/2 (Sept. 1994) pp.137-56.
5. Steinberg (note 2) p.2. Because of the lack of official controls on cross-border trade, this figure must be considered approximate only. See also 'Asia's New Growth Circles', Asia Inc. Nov. 1993, pp.36-46; and 'Sino-Myanmar Trade Develops Apace', Beijing Review 34/33 (19-25 Aug. 1991) p.30.
6. Steinberg (note 2) p.2. Because of the lack of official controls on cross-border trade, this figure must be considered approximate only. See also 'Asia's New Growth Circles', Asia Inc. Nov. 1993, pp.36-46; and 'Sino-Myanmar Trade Develops Apace', Beijing Review 34/33 (19-25 Aug. 1991) p.30.
7. These arms supplies have been the subject of numerous reports since 1988. See e.g. Martin Smith, The Burmese way to rack and ruin', Index On Censorship 10 (1991) pp.43-5; and Bertil Lintner, 'Chinese arms bolster Burmese forces', Jane's Defence Wkly [hereafter JDW], 27 Nov. 1993, p.11. The precise value of these arms is not known.
8. These arms supplies have been the subject of numerous reports since 1988. See e.g. Martin Smith, The Burmese way to rack and ruin', Index On Censorship 10 (1991) pp.43-5; and Bertil Lintner, 'Chinese arms bolster Burmese forces', Jane's Defence Wkly [hereafter JDW], 27 Nov. 1993, p.11. The precise value of these arms is not known.
9. As early as 1985 there were official calls for the restoration of the ancient Southern Silk Route from Yunnan through Burma to the Indian Ocean. See Pan Qi, 'Opening the Southwest: An Expert Opinion', Beijing Review 28/35 (2 Sept. 1985) pp.22-3.
10. Jayant Baranwai (ed.) SP's Military Yearbook 1992-93 (New Delhi: Guide Publications 1992) p.101 and pp.371-7. For a more sceptical view, see William Ashton, 'Chinese naval base: Many rumours, few facts', Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter 19-20/12-1 (June-July 1993) p.25.
11. Jayant Baranwai (ed.) SP's Military Yearbook 1992-93 (New Delhi: Guide Publications 1992) p.101 and pp.371-7. For a more sceptical view, see William Ashton, 'Chinese naval base: Many rumours, few facts', Asia-Pacific Defence Reporter 19-20/12-1 (June-July 1993) p.25.
12. See e.g. Bertil Lintner, 'Arms for Eyes', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 Dec. 1993, p.26; Robert Karniol, 'Chinese puzzle over Burma's SIGINT base', JDW, 29 Jan. 1994, p. 14; and Bertil Lintner, 'Enter the Dragon', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 Dec. 1994, p.23.
13. See e.g. Bertil Lintner, 'Arms for Eyes', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 Dec. 1993, p.26; Robert Karniol, 'Chinese puzzle over Burma's SIGINT base', JDW, 29 Jan. 1994, p. 14; and Bertil Lintner, 'Enter the Dragon', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 Dec. 1994, p.23.
14. See e.g. Bertil Lintner, 'Arms for Eyes', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 Dec. 1993, p.26; Robert Karniol, 'Chinese puzzle over Burma's SIGINT base', JDW, 29 Jan. 1994, p. 14; and Bertil Lintner, 'Enter the Dragon', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 Dec. 1994, p.23.
15. R.H. Munro, 'China's Waxing Spheres of Influence', Orbis 38/4 (Fall 1994) pp.589-91.
16. Stobdan (note 2) p.21; Also Malik (note 2) pp.140 and 149.
17. For a comprehensive history of Indians in Burma, see N.R. Chakravati, The Indian Minority in Burma: The Rise and Decline of an Immigrant Community (London: OUP 1971); see also Steinberg (note 2) pp.3-4.
18. Bertil Lintner, The Indo-Burmese Frontier - A Legacy of Violence', Jane's Intelligence Review [hereafter JIR] 6/1 (Jan. 1994) p.39. See also idem, 'Regional rivals leading Burma astray', JDW, 15 June 1991, pp.1053-4.
19. Bertil Lintner, The Indo-Burmese Frontier - A Legacy of Violence', Jane's Intelligence Review [hereafter JIR] 6/1 (Jan. 1994) p.39. See also idem, 'Regional rivals leading Burma astray', JDW, 15 June 1991, pp.1053-4.
20. Limner, The Indo-Burmese Frontier' (note 11) p.39.
21. Surjit Mansingh, 'India-China Relations in the Post Cold War Era', Asian Survey 24/3 (March 1994) pp.297-300. See also Steinberg (note 2) p.4.
22. Dinesh Kumar, 'Sino-Myanmar ties irk Delhi', Times of India, 20 Nov. 1992; and 'The South-East Front', Vayu Aerospace Review 4 (1992) p.2. See also Malik (note 2) pp.140-41.
23. Dinesh Kumar, 'Sino-Myanmar ties irk Delhi', Times of India, 20 Nov. 1992; and 'The South-East Front', Vayu Aerospace Review 4 (1992) p.2. See also Malik (note 2) pp.140-41.
24. Bertil Lintner, The Islamabad Link', India Today, 30 Sept. 1989, pp.60-61. See also Smith (note 4) p.44.
25. Steinberg (note 2) p.5.
26. Malik (note 2) pp.148-9. See also Andrew Selth, 'Burma: "Hidden Paradise" or Paradise Lost?', Current Affairs Bulletin 68/6 (Nov. 1991) pp.4-11.
27. Typical of such reports is William Branigin, 'As China Builds Arsenal and Bases, Asians Fear a "Rogue in the Region'", Washington Post, 31 March 1993.
28. See e.g. Sridhar Krishnaswami, 'Myanmar denies grant of bases to China', The Hindu, 7 Oct. 1994.
29. Mansingh (note 13) pp.285-300.
30. Burma was a founding member of the NAM, but withdrew at the 1979 meeting in Havana when, under pressure from Cuba, the Movement became more closely aligned with the Soviet Union. Burma feared that to remain a member under these circumstances would offend China.
31. The best account of this turbulent period, in which more than 3,000 people were killed by the Burmese armed forces, is Bertil Lintner, Outrage: Burma's Struggle for Democracy (London: White Lotus 1990).
32. Bertil Lintner, 'Regional Rivals' (note 11) pp.1053-4; William Ashton, The Burmese Navy', JIR 6/1 (Jan. 1994) pp.36-7; and idem, 'The Burmese Air Force', ibid. 6/10 (Oct. 1994) pp.463-6.
33. Bertil Lintner, 'Regional Rivals' (note 11) pp.1053-4; William Ashton, The Burmese Navy', JIR 6/1 (Jan. 1994) pp.36-7; and idem, 'The Burmese Air Force', ibid. 6/10 (Oct. 1994) pp.463-6.
34. Bertil Lintner, 'Regional Rivals' (note 11) pp.1053-4; William Ashton, The Burmese Navy', JIR 6/1 (Jan. 1994) pp.36-7; and idem, 'The Burmese Air Force', ibid. 6/10 (Oct. 1994) pp.463-6.
35. Mya Maung, 'On The Road To Mandalay: A Case Study of the Sinonization of Upper Burma', Asian Survey 34/5 (May 1994) pp.447-59. See also 'Myanmar and China: But will the Hag follow trade?', The Economist, 8 Oct. 1994, pp.31-2.
36. Mya Maung, 'On The Road To Mandalay: A Case Study of the Sinonization of Upper Burma', Asian Survey 34/5 (May 1994) pp.447-59. See also 'Myanmar and China: But will the Hag follow trade?', The Economist, 8 Oct. 1994, pp.31-2.
37. 'Rangoon stalls PRC request to lease island for port', Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 20 Jan. 1995.
38. The most comprehensive account of this complex issue is Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948 (Boulder CO: Westview Press 1994).
39. William Ashton, 'Chinese Naval Bases in Burma - Fact or Fiction?', JIR 7/2 (Feb. 1995).
40. C.V. Ranganathan, 'China, The "Asian Miracle" and India-China Relations', Indian Defence Review 9/4 (Oct.-Dec. 1994) pp.14.
41. 'Burmese Seek New Indian Ties', Defense News, 28 Nov. to 4 Dec. 1994.
42. Steinberg (note 2) p.5.
43. Mya Maung (note 24) p.459.
44. These disturbances are described in Ralph Pettman, China in Burma's Foreign Policy, Contemporary China Papers No. 7 (Canberra: ANUP 1973) pp.30ff.
45. See e.g. 'AIDS Becoming Large Problem in China'. Australian Associated Press, 28 Dec. 1994'.
46. 'HIV/AIDS Country Profile: Burma', in HIV/AIDS Country Profiles: Asia/Pacific Region, 1994 (Canberra: Dept of Foreign Affairs and Trade 1994) pp.17-21.
47. Steinberg (note 2) p.5.