The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia): The evolution of centre-periphery relations in the Russian Federation

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 48, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 587-613

  Kempton, Daniel R ^a  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CENTRE-PERIPHERY RELATIONS; GEOPOLITICAL STUDY; REGIONAL POLITICS;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION, YAKUTIA;

EID: 0030513968     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139608412369     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. M. V. Lomonosov.
2. Ian Bremmer, 'Reassessing Soviet Nationalities Theory', in Ian Bremmer & Ray Taras (eds), Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 22.
3. John W. R. Leppingwell, Alexander Rahr, Elizabeth Teague & Vera Tolz, 'Russia: A Troubled Future', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 24, 17 June 1994, pp. 8-10.
4. While Russia has 150 nationalities, only 32 have been their own territorial units. Natalya Zhelnorova, Argumenty i fakty, 1994, 41 (October), p. 3.
5. The terms regions and regional refer to all non-ethnically defined components of the Russian Federation. The term components is used to describe all the units of Russia, including both republics and regions.
6. Vera Tolz, 'Thorny Road toward Federalism in Russia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 48, 3 December 1993, p. 3.
7. Leppingwell et al., p. 9.
8. Gail W. Lapidus & Edward W. Walker, 'Nationalism, Regionalism, and Federalism: Center-Periphery Relations in Post-Soviet Russia', in Gail W. Lapidus (ed), The New Russia: Troubled Transformation (Boulder CO, Westview Press, 1995), p. 103.
9. Particularly perceptive examinations include Lapidus & Walker, pp. 79-113; John W. Slocum, Disintegration and Consolidation: National Separatism and the Evolution of Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation, Cornell University Peace Studies Program, Occasional Paper 19, July 1995; Elizabeth Teague, 'Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation', in Roman Szporluk (ed), National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 21-57; and Edward W. Walker, 'Designing Center-Region Relations in the new Russia', East European Constitutional Review, 4, 1, Winter 1995, pp. 54-60.
10. Particularly perceptive examinations include Lapidus & Walker, pp. 79-113; John W. Slocum, Disintegration and Consolidation: National Separatism and the Evolution of Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation, Cornell University Peace Studies Program, Occasional Paper 19, July 1995; Elizabeth Teague, 'Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation', in Roman Szporluk (ed), National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 21-57; and Edward W. Walker, 'Designing Center-Region Relations in the new Russia', East European Constitutional Review, 4, 1, Winter 1995, pp. 54-60.
11. Particularly perceptive examinations include Lapidus & Walker, pp. 79-113; John W. Slocum, Disintegration and Consolidation: National Separatism and the Evolution of Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation, Cornell University Peace Studies Program, Occasional Paper 19, July 1995; Elizabeth Teague, 'Center-Periphery Relations in the Russian Federation', in Roman Szporluk (ed), National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, NY, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), pp. 21-57; and Edward W. Walker, 'Designing Center-Region Relations in the new Russia', East European Constitutional Review, 4, 1, Winter 1995, pp. 54-60.
12. While Yakutia was not officially renamed Sakha until 1991, to avoid confusion, the name Sakha is used throughout.
13. Segodnya, 22 February 1994, pp. 4-5.
14. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 25 December 1993, p. 3.
15. M. Nikolaev, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 21 January 1995, pp. 1-2.
16. For a general summary of Siberian resources see Craig ZumBrunnen, 'Resources', in Allan Rodgers (ed), The Soviet Far East (London and New York, Routledge, 1990), pp. 83-113.
17. Pravda, 19 September 1992; p. 3.
18. Steve Thompson & Vladimir Matveev, 'Sakha Republic of Russian Far East looks like a new exploration frontier', Oil & Gas Journal, 8 August 1994, pp. 70-72.
19. Victor L. Mote, 'The South Yakutian Territorial Production Complex', in Allan Rodgers (ed), The Soviet Far East (London and New York, Routledge, 1990), p. 164.
20. A superb social anthropological study of Sakha is Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer & Uliana Alekseeva Vinokurova, 'Nationalism, Interethnic Relations and Federalism: The Case of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia)', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 1, 1996, pp. 101-120.
21. Gail A. Fondahl, 'Siberia: Native Peoples and Newcomers in Collision', in Ian Bremmer & Ray Taras (eds), Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 477-510.
22. Yako is actually an Evenk word, which means 'people with cattle'. Early Russian settlers thus called the land Yakol and later Yakutia, and referred to the people as Yakuts. The people of Sakha never themselves used the terms Yakut or Yakutia. They prefer Sakhan, which means people of the sun. Today, the Russian press continues to use the terms Yakut and Yakutia, although the official designation for the republic is now the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Literaturnaya gazeta, 1 December 1993, p. 11.
23. Fondahl, p. 498.
24. Mote, pp. 163-184.
25. In September 1994 the Sakhan Supreme Soviet approved the allocation of $150 million in rough diamonds to help complete the project. INTERFAX, 21 September 1994, in FBIS-SOV-94-184, 22 September 1994, p. 47.
26. Moscow World Service, 2 October 1990, in FBIS-SOV-90-192, 3 October 1990, p. 76.
27. Balzer & Vinokurova, p. 107.
28. Lapidus & Walker, pp. 81-87.
29. New York Times, 2 September 1990, cited in Lapidus & Walker, p. 83.
30. A major diamond pipe was discovered in Arkhangelsk oblast', but will not come into full development until after 2000. However, new diamond pipes are also being developed in Sakha, including the Yubileinyi pipe, which may be the largest of all new pipes. There are also a few small alluvial diamond sources in south Russia. Although both Australia and Botswana produced more carats of natural diamonds in 1993. Russian production contains a greater percentage of valuable gem diamonds.
31. Elizabeth Rubinfien, 'Russia's Diamond Industry Debating Loosening Marketing Ties to De Beers', Wall Street Journal, 29 January 1994, p. A-11.
32. For an extensive summary of Soviet and Russian relations with De Beers see Daniel R. Kempton with Richard M. Levine, 'Soviet and Russian Relations with Foreign Corporations: The Case of Gold and Diamonds', Slavic Review, 54, 1, Spring 1995, pp. 80-110.
33. Izvestiya, 13 December 1991, p. 7 and Pravda vostoka, 27 August 1992, p. 1 in JPRS-UCH-92-007, 21 October 1992, p. 41.
34. Izvestiya, 13 December 1991, p. 7 and Pravda vostoka, 27 August 1992, p. 1 in JPRS-UCH-92-007, 21 October 1992, p. 41.
35. TASS 28 January 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-020, 30 January 1992, p. 46.
36. TASS, 27 January 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-018, 28 January 1992, p. 54.
37. Moscow Radio Rossii Network, 28 January 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-019, 29 January 1992, p. 51.
38. TASS, 21 February 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-037, 25 February 1992, p. 50; and Rossiiskaya gazeta, 19 February 1992, p. 3.
39. Kommersant, 1992, 29, 13-20 July, p. 4. in FBIS-USR-92-100, 7 August 1992, pp. 46-48; INTERFAX, 27 January 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-017, 28 January 1993, p. 29; and Kommersant, 16 July 1993, p. 2, in FBIS-SOV-93-135, 16 July 1993, p. 33.
40. Kommersant, 1992, 29, 13-20 July, p. 4. in FBIS-USR-92-100, 7 August 1992, pp. 46-48; INTERFAX, 27 January 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-017, 28 January 1993, p. 29; and Kommersant, 16 July 1993, p. 2, in FBIS-SOV-93-135, 16 July 1993, p. 33.
41. Author's interview with Sergei Aramovich Oulin, Director, Almazy Rossii-Sakha, Moscow, 23 May 1994.
42. INTERFAX, 14 July 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-138, 17 July 1992, p. 46.
43. INTERFAX Mining report, 4-11 September 1992, pp. 2-3, SWBSU/W0247, 11 September 1992, p. A16; INTERFAX Mining Report, 23-30 October 1992, p. 6; Kommersant, 14 July 1992, p. A6, all cited in Bond, Levine & Austin, p. 639.
44. INTERFAX Mining report, 4-11 September 1992, pp. 2-3, SWBSU/W0247, 11 September 1992, p. A16; INTERFAX Mining Report, 23-30 October 1992, p. 6; Kommersant, 14 July 1992, p. A6, all cited in Bond, Levine & Austin, p. 639.
45. INTERFAX Mining report, 4-11 September 1992, pp. 2-3, SWBSU/W0247, 11 September 1992, p. A16; INTERFAX Mining Report, 23-30 October 1992, p. 6; Kommersant, 14 July 1992, p. A6, all cited in Bond, Levine & Austin, p. 639.
46. Izvestiya, 9 September 1992, p. 6; and author's interview with Leonid Borisovich Gurevich, Deputy Chairman, Roskomdragmet, Moscow, 19 May 1994.
47. Izvestiya, 9 September 1992, p. 6; and author's interview with Roger van Eeghen, De Beers Centenary, Group Corporate Communications, London, 31 May and 1 June 1994.
48. Kommersant, 16 July 1993, p. 2.
49. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 22 December 1992, p. 5.
50. Author's interview with Oulin, 23 May 1994.
51. Author's interview with Evgenii Matveevich Bichkov, chairman, Roskomdragmet, and Yurii A. Kotlyar, first deputy chairman, Roskomdragmet, Moscow, 27 May 1994.
52. Ekonomika i zhizn', 1994, 12 (March) p. 17.
53. Vostochnyi ekspress, 1994, 1-2 (28 January), p. 11 in FBIS-USR-94-019, 2 March 1994, pp. 10-11.
54. Bichkov, however, claims that the percentage of wasted carats was down and the value of diamonds cut rose from $500 million in 1992 to $630 million in 1993; author's interview with Bichkov and Kotlyar, 27 May 1994.
55. Segodnya, 11 January 1994, p. 13, in FBIS-SOV-94-008, 2 February 1994, pp. 9-10.
56. Vera Tolz, 'Regionalism in Russia: The Case of Siberia', RFE/RL Research Report, 2, 9, 26 February 1993, p. 4.
57. Nine of the republics attached conditions to the Federal Treaty when they signed and others, like the Republic of Tatarstan and the Chechen Republic, refused to sign.
58. Izvestiya, 28 January 1992; Moscow Mayak Radio, 27 January 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-018, 28 January 1992, p. 54; TASS, 5 February 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-025, 6 February 1992, p. 56 and INTERFAX, 26 February 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-038, 26 February 1992, p. 52.
59. Izvestiya, 28 January 1992; Moscow Mayak Radio, 27 January 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-018, 28 January 1992, p. 54; TASS, 5 February 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-025, 6 February 1992, p. 56 and INTERFAX, 26 February 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-038, 26 February 1992, p. 52.
60. Federatsiya, 1993, 12 (2 February), p. 2, in FBIS-USR-93-026, 6 March 1993, pp. 52-53.
61. Federatsiya, 1993, 12 (2 February), p. 2, in FBIS-USR-93-026, 6 March 1993, pp. 52-53.
62. Nevavisimaya gazeta, 30 December 1992, p. 2.
63. INTERFAX, 2 December 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-232-S, 3 December 1992, p. 18.
64. Mikhail Nikolaev, Literaturnaya gazeta, 1 December 1993, p. 11.
65. ITAR-TASS, 19 June 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-117, 21 June 1993, p. 44.
66. Izvestiya, 22 June 1993, p. 2.
67. 'Daily Report: Eurasia', RFE/RL, 1993, 12 (1 July).
68. A useful discussion of the July 1993 draft and its effect on the republics can be found in, Tolz, 'Thorny Road ...', p. 5.
69. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 17 August 1993, pp. 1 and 3.
70. ITAR-TASS, 18 August 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-159, 19 August 1993, pp. 25-26.
71. Segodnya, 6 July 1993, p. 1.
72. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 14 September 1993, p. 1.
73. Kommersant, 3 August 1993, p. 3, in FBIS-SOV-93-150, 6 August 1993, p. 3.
74. For the best assessment of the Siberian Agreement see, James Hughes, 'Regionalism in Russia: The Rise and Fall of Siberian Agreement', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1994, pp. 1133-1161.
75. Hughes, 'Regionalism', p. 1135.
76. Michael J. Bradshaw, 'Siberia Poses a Challenge to Russian Federalism', RFE/RL Research Report, 41, 16 October 1992; and James Hughes, 'Yeltsin's Siberian Opposition', RFE/RL Research Report, 50, 17 December 1993, pp. 29-34.
77. Michael J. Bradshaw, 'Siberia Poses a Challenge to Russian Federalism', RFE/RL Research Report, 41, 16 October 1992; and James Hughes, 'Yeltsin's Siberian Opposition', RFE/RL Research Report, 50, 17 December 1993, pp. 29-34.
78. Kommersant, 1-8 July 1991, p. 14.
79. Tolz, 'Regionalism ...', p. 3.
80. Hughes, 'Yeltsin's', pp. 29-34.
81. For an in-depth discussion of this controversy, see Julia Wishnevsky, 'Problems of Russian Regional Leadership', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 19, 13 May 1994, pp. 6-13.
82. Hughes, 'Regionalism ...', p. 1 147.
83. TASS, 13 August 1991, in FBIS-SOV-91-157, 14 August 1991, p. 65.
84. Moscow Domestic Service in Russian, 6 January 1991, in FBIS-SOV-91-004, 7 January 1991, p. 53; and Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 March 1992, in FBIS-USR-92-044, 20 April 1992, p. 38; and Postfaktum, 28 March 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-061, 30 March 1992, p. 25.
85. Moscow Domestic Service in Russian, 6 January 1991, in FBIS-SOV-91-004, 7 January 1991, p. 53; and Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 March 1992, in FBIS-USR-92-044, 20 April 1992, p. 38; and Postfaktum, 28 March 1992, in FBIS-SOV-92-061, 30 March 1992, p. 25.
86. Sibirskaya gazeta, 1992, 23-24 (June), p. 6, in FBIS-USR-92-144, 11 November 1992, pp. 35-36.
87. Federatsiya, 1992, 16 (8 April), p. 6, in FBIS-USR-92-048, 29 April 1992, pp. 43-44.
88. INTERFAX, 29 September 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-188, 30 September 1993, p. 27.
89. Hughes, 'Yeltsin's ...', pp. 30-35.
90. ITAR-TASS, 16 and 17 February 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-032, 19 February 1993, pp. 38-40.
91. Hughes, 'Yeltsin's ...', pp. 31.
92. Ibid., pp. 33-35.
93. Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia's Local Elections', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 17, 18 February 1994, p. 1.
94. Ivankov had opposed Mukha's September ultimatum and was also an old colleague of El'tsin from his days as regional party boss in Sverdlovsk. Hughes, 'Yeltsin's ...', p. 32.
95. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 2 April 1992, p. 2.
96. Rossiiskie vesti, 25 September 1993, p. 2.
97. 'Summary of Republican Heads', FBIS-USR-94-025, 16 March 1994, p. 22.
98. INTERFAX, 4 October 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-190-S, 4 October 1993, pp. 79-80.
99. Petr Syugurin, Rossiiskaya gazeta, 11 February 1995, p. 3; Andrei Fadin, Ohshchava gazeta, 20 May 1995, p. 1: INTERFAX, 24 January 1995, in FBIS-SOV-95-016, 25 January 1995, p. 15.
100. Petr Syugurin, Rossiiskaya gazeta, 11 February 1995, p. 3; Andrei Fadin, Ohshchava gazeta, 20 May 1995, p. 1: INTERFAX, 24 January 1995, in FBIS-SOV-95-016, 25 January 1995, p. 15.
101. Dwight Semler, 'Focus: Crisis in Russia', East European Constitutional Review, 3, 1 (Fall 1993/Winter 1994), p. 113.
102. INTERFAX, 17 December 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-242, 20 December 1993, p. 4.
103. Rossiiskie vesti, 2 November 1993, p. 2, in FBIS-SOV-93-211, 3 November 1993, pp. 25-26.
104. Vera Tolz, 'Thorny Road ...', pp. 7-8.
105. Teague, 'Center-Periphery', p. 44.
106. Semler, p. 114.
107. Mikhail Nikolaev, Literaturnaya gazeta, 1 December 1993, p. 1, in FBIS-USR-93-233, 18 December 1993, pp. 23-28.
108. East European Constitutional Review, 3, 3 (Spring 1993/Fall 1993), p. 19.
109. Walker, 'Designing ...', pp. 54-60.
110. Teague, 'Center-Periphery', p. 31.
111. Tolz, 'Thorny Road ...', pp. 3 and 8.
112. ITAR-TASS, 23 February 1995, in FBIS-SOV-95-036, 23 February 1995, p. 17.
113. Rossiiskie vesti, 4 December 1993, p. 1.
114. Nikolaev, Literaturnaya gazeta, 1 December 1993, p. 11, in FBIS-USR-93-161, 18 December 1993, pp. 23-28.
115. INTERFAX, 27 December 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-247, 28 December 1993, p. 24.
116. El'tsin purposely chose a constitutional plebiscite rather than a referendum. While existing legislation required the support of 50% of eligible voters to support a referendum, there was no clear legislation for the success of a plebiscite. It is important to note in retrospect that the same vote would have meant failure for a constitutional referendum. Wendy Slater, 'Russia's Plebiscite on a New Constitution', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 31, 21 January 1994, p. 2.
117. 'Daily Reports', no. 234, RFE/RL, 8 December 1993. Subsequent data also suggest that because between 9 and 11 million fraudulent ballots were cast in the election (close to 20% of all ballots cast) voter turnout was probably below the 50% necessary for the plebiscite to be legally binding.
118. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 16 December 1993, p. 3.
119. Darrell Slider, Vladimir Gimpel'son & Sergei Chugrov, 'Political Tendencies in Russia's Regions: Evidence from the 1993 Parliamentary Elections', Slavic Review, 53, 3, 1994, pp. 711-732.
120. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 16 December 1993, p. 3.
121. INTERFAX, 1 November 1993, in FBIS-SOV-93-210, 2 November 1993, pp. 25-26.
122. Rossiiskaya gazeta, 6 April 1994, p. 4.
123. Izvestiya, 1 July 1994, p. 1; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 20 October 1994, p. 5; and OMRI, Daily Digest, no. 102, Part I, 26 May 1995; Segodnya, 5 July 1994, p. 2 in FBIS-SOV-94-129, 6 July 1994, p. 33.
124. Izvestiya, 1 July 1994, p. 1; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 20 October 1994, p. 5; and OMRI, Daily Digest, no. 102, Part I, 26 May 1995; Segodnya, 5 July 1994, p. 2 in FBIS-SOV-94-129, 6 July 1994, p. 33.
125. Izvestiya, 1 July 1994, p. 1; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 20 October 1994, p. 5; and OMRI, Daily Digest, no. 102, Part I, 26 May 1995; Segodnya, 5 July 1994, p. 2 in FBIS-SOV-94-129, 6 July 1994, p. 33.
126. Izvestiya, 1 July 1994, p. 1; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 20 October 1994, p. 5; and OMRI, Daily Digest, no. 102, Part I, 26 May 1995; Segodnya, 5 July 1994, p. 2 in FBIS-SOV-94-129, 6 July 1994, p. 33.
127. Elizabeth Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan Sign Power-sharine Treaty', RFE/RL Research Report, 3, 14, 8 April 1994, pp. 19-27.
128. Kommersant, 31 May 1994, p. 3 in FBIS-SOV-94-104, 31 May 1994, p. 24.
129. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 17 March 1994, p. 1.
130. Segodnya, 7 February 1995, p. 3 in FBIS-SOV-95-036-S, 23 February 1995, pp. 58-59.
131. Novaya ezhednevnaya gazeta, 4 August 1994, pp. 1-2, in FBIS-SOV-94-152, 8 August 1994, pp. 21-23.
132. INTERFAX, 26 January 1995, in FBIS-SOV-95-018, 27 January 1995, p. 54.
133. Segodnya, 1 October 1994, p. 2, in FBIS-SOV-94-204, 21 October 1994, pp. 36-37.
134. Jamestown Monitor, 1, 44 (3 July 1995).
135. Balzer & Vinkurova, p. 108.
136. Slider et al., p. 713.
137. While the Duma leaders were outraged by El'tsin's action, the veto was widely praised by Nikolaev and other representatives of the components within the Federation Council. OMRI, Daily Report, no. 88, 5 May 1995.
138. Lapidus & Walker, p. 102.
139. Teague, 'Russia and Tatarstan', pp. 26-27.