Assessing the value of sports facilities: The importance of noneconomic factors

Economic Development Quarterly

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 369-381

  Johnson, Arthur T ^a   Sack, Allen ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND BALTIMORE COUNTY   (United States)

^b University of Maryland ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030506044     PISSN: 08912424     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/089124249601000406     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. H. Wolman, "Local Economic Development Policy: What Explains the Difference between Policy Analysis and Political Behavior?" Journal of Urban Affairs 10 (1988): 19-28.
2. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
3. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
4. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
5. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
6. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
7. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
8. See, for example, M. Rosentraub, D. Swindell, M. Przybylski, and D. Mullins, "Sport and Downtown Development Strategy: If You Build It, Will Jobs Come?" Journal of Urban Affairs 16 (1994): 221-39; Euchner, Playing the Field: Why Sports Teams Move and Cities Fight to Keep Them (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); A. Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York: Basic Books, 1993); D. Bairn, The Sports Stadium as a Municipal Investment (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992); R. Baade and R. Dye, "Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review," Economic Development Quarterly 2 (1988): 265-75; R. Baade, Is There an Economic Rationale for Subsidizing Sports Stadiums? Heartland Policy Study No. 13. (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1987); and A. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue and Public Policy Responses," in Government and Sport: The Public Policy Issues, ed. A. Johnson and J. Frey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 219-47.
9. See C. Stone and H. Sanders, "Reexamining a Classic Case of Development Politics: New Haven, Connecticut," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. C. Stone and H. Sanders (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1987), pp. 159-81; P. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); G. Domhoff, Who Really Rules? (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1978); R. Wolfinger, The Politics of Progress (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974): and R. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).
10. See C. Stone and H. Sanders, "Reexamining a Classic Case of Development Politics: New Haven, Connecticut," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. C. Stone and H. Sanders (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1987), pp. 159-81; P. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); G. Domhoff, Who Really Rules? (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1978); R. Wolfinger, The Politics of Progress (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974): and R. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).
11. See C. Stone and H. Sanders, "Reexamining a Classic Case of Development Politics: New Haven, Connecticut," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. C. Stone and H. Sanders (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1987), pp. 159-81; P. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); G. Domhoff, Who Really Rules? (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1978); R. Wolfinger, The Politics of Progress (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974): and R. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).
12. See C. Stone and H. Sanders, "Reexamining a Classic Case of Development Politics: New Haven, Connecticut," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. C. Stone and H. Sanders (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1987), pp. 159-81; P. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); G. Domhoff, Who Really Rules? (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1978); R. Wolfinger, The Politics of Progress (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974): and R. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).
13. See C. Stone and H. Sanders, "Reexamining a Classic Case of Development Politics: New Haven, Connecticut," in The Politics of Urban Development, ed. C. Stone and H. Sanders (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1987), pp. 159-81; P. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); G. Domhoff, Who Really Rules? (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1978); R. Wolfinger, The Politics of Progress (Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974): and R. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).
14. The interviewees were promised anonymity; therefore, their comments are integrated throughout the text without attribution.
15. D. Rae, correspondence to Frank Grasso, president, Board of Aldermen, May 21, 1990.
16. J. Sappey, "Economic Impact Study and Demographic Profile of the 1991 Volvo International," (n.d.).
17. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
18. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
19. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
20. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
21. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
22. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
23. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
24. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
25. See, for example, J. L. Crompton, "Economic Impact Analysis of Sports Facilities and Events: Eleven Sources of Misapplication," Journal of Sport Management 9 (1995): 14-35; D. Swindell and M. Rosentraub, "Hammers and Their Use: Some Issues Involved in the Selection of Appropriate Tools for Public Policy Analysis," Economic Development Quarterly 6 (1992): 96-101; S. Nunn, "Estimating the Costs of Public/Private Infrastructure Deals in Municipal Government," American Review of Public Administration 21 (1991): 287-309; J. Forester, Planning in the Face of Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); A. Catanese, "Planning Infrastructure for Urban Development," in Public Infrastructure Planning and Management, ed. J. Stein (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), pp. 81-93; W. Fulton, "Politicians Who Chase after Sports Franchises May Get Less than They Pay For," Governing, 1 (March, 1988): 34-40; W. Hunter, Economic Impact Studies: Inaccurate, Misleading and Unnecessary, Heartland Institute Policy Study No. 21 (Chicago: Heartland Institute, 1988); H. Leonard, Checks Unbalanced: The Quiet Side of Public Spending (New York: Basic Books, 1986); and H. Sanders, "Politics and Urban Public Facilities," in Perspectives on Urban Infrastructure, ed. R. Hanson (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), pp. 143-69.
26. Sappey, "Economic Impact Study," p. 13.
27. A multiplier estimates the number of times a dollar, once expended within an economy, is respent within the XNindaries of that economy. The lack of a substitute event for the VITT does not determine how many times a "VITT-expended dollar" will be respent. One might attempt to predict in what ways a dollar would be spent in the absence of the VlTT and calculate the difference in multipliers for those expenditure patterns compared with expenditures for "hotels, lodging places, and amusements." Certain types of expenditures would have higher multipliers; others would have lower multipliers.
28. Sappey, "Economic Impact Study," p. 13.
29. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Regional Multipliers: A User Handbook for the Regional Input-Output System (RIMS 11), 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992).
30. B. Okner, "Subsidies of Stadiums and Arenas," in Government and the Sports Business, ed. R. Noll (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1974), pp. 346-7.
31. Johnson, "The Sports Franchise Relocation Issue," pp. 222-6.
32. One interviewee argued that the project was intended to produce regional benefits; therefore, he did not believe that the tennis stadium cost New Haven political capital.
33. See, for example, the competing arguments of Peterson, City Limits, and C. Stone, "Summing Up. Urban Regimes, Development Policy, and Political Arrangements," in The Politics of Urban Development, pp. 269-90.
34. See, for example, the competing arguments of Peterson, City Limits, and C. Stone, "Summing Up. Urban Regimes, Development Policy, and Political Arrangements," in The Politics of Urban Development, pp. 269-90.
35. New Haven's 1990 population of 130,474 was nearly 22,000 fewer than its 1960 population. Its minority population, mostly African American and Hispanic, was 51% of its 1990 population, compared to 41% of its 1980 population. New Haven was the third poorest city in one of the nation's wealthiest states in 1990 and had more than one-half of its children living in poverty. In 1994, 45% of the city's children received Aid to Families with Dependent Children, compared to the state's 1992-94 average of 14%. Nearly 50% of the city's real estate is tax exempt due to the extensive landholdings of Yale University, numerous hospitals, and other nonprofit organizations located in New Haven and the many acres of parkland within the city limits. Forty-five percent of the city's revenues comes from state sources. The downtown mall's parking garage was scheduled to be closed soon after the interviews were completed for this research because it was not generating enough revenue to cover its operating costs.
36. J. Cavanaugh, "New Haven Rallies for a Tennis Week," New York Times, August 16, 1992, see. B2.
37. See, for example, H. G. Bissenger, Friday Night Lights (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1990); Real, "Super Bowl: Mythic Spectacle," Journal of Communication 25 (1975): 31-43; and R. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Ballentine, 1971).
38. See, for example, H. G. Bissenger, Friday Night Lights (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1990); Real, "Super Bowl: Mythic Spectacle," Journal of Communication 25 (1975): 31-43; and R. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Ballentine, 1971).
39. See, for example, H. G. Bissenger, Friday Night Lights (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1990); Real, "Super Bowl: Mythic Spectacle," Journal of Communication 25 (1975): 31-43; and R. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Ballentine, 1971).
40. J. Thelin, Games Colleges Play (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
41. Sappey, "Economic Impact Study."
42. G. Judson, "New Haven's Task: Tying City to Region to Promote Growth," New York Times, June 1,1993, see. A1.
43. See A. Johnson, Minor League Baseball and Local Economic Development (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993) and E. Blakely, Planning Local Economic Development (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
44. See A. Johnson, Minor League Baseball and Local Economic Development (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993) and E. Blakely, Planning Local Economic Development (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
45. Rosentraub et al., "Sport and Downtown Development."
46. As this manuscript was being prepared for publication, it was announced that Volvo would terminate its sponsorship of the tournament and that Pilot Pen, the manufacturer of ballpoint pens, would sponsor the 1996 event; that Andre Agassi, a regular competitor in the VITT, would not appear in the 1996 event; and that there would be no women's exhibition in 1996. These developments raise further concerns about the financial viability of the TFC and the nature of the benefits New Haven and the state can expect to realize from the Connecticut Tennis Center.