The mechanics of learning by doing: Problem discovery during process machine use

Technology and Culture

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 312-329

  Von Hippel, Eric ^a   Tyre, Marcie ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030503070     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3106818     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. Robert L. Hayes and Kim B. Clark, "Exploring the Sources of Productivity Differences at the Factory Level," in The Uneasy Alliance, ed. K. B. Clark, R. L. Hayes, and C. Lorenz (Boston, 1985), pp. 425-58; Dorothy Leonard-Barton, "Implementation as Mutual Adaptation of Technology and Organization," Research Policy 17 (1988); 251-65; Marcie Tyre and Oscar Hauptman, "Effectiveness of Organizational Response Mechanisms to Technological Change in the Production Process," Organization Science 3 (1992): 301-21.
2. Robert L. Hayes and Kim B. Clark, "Exploring the Sources of Productivity Differences at the Factory Level," in The Uneasy Alliance, ed. K. B. Clark, R. L. Hayes, and C. Lorenz (Boston, 1985), pp. 425-58; Dorothy Leonard-Barton, "Implementation as Mutual Adaptation of Technology and Organization," Research Policy 17 (1988); 251-65; Marcie Tyre and Oscar Hauptman, "Effectiveness of Organizational Response Mechanisms to Technological Change in the Production Process," Organization Science 3 (1992): 301-21.
3. Robert L. Hayes and Kim B. Clark, "Exploring the Sources of Productivity Differences at the Factory Level," in The Uneasy Alliance, ed. K. B. Clark, R. L. Hayes, and C. Lorenz (Boston, 1985), pp. 425-58; Dorothy Leonard-Barton, "Implementation as Mutual Adaptation of Technology and Organization," Research Policy 17 (1988); 251-65; Marcie Tyre and Oscar Hauptman, "Effectiveness of Organizational Response Mechanisms to Technological Change in the Production Process," Organization Science 3 (1992): 301-21.
4. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840-1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
5. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
6. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
7. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
8. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
9. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
10. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
11. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
12. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
13. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
14. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
15. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
16. Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Change in the Machine Tool Industry, 1840- 1910," Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 414-43; Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977); Nathan Rosenberg and Walter G. Vincenti, The Britannia Bridge: The Generation and Diffusion of Technological Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass., 1978); Nathan Rosenberg, "Technological Interdependence in the American Economy," Technology and Culture 20 (1979): 25-50; David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); Carolyn C. Cooper, "The Portsmouth System of Manufacture," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 182-225; Walter G. Vincenti, "Technological Knowledge without Science: The Innovation of Flush Riveting in American Airplanes, ca. 1930-ca. 1950," Technology and Culture 25 (1984): 540-76; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1984); Laurence F. Gross, "Wool Carding: A Study of Skills and Technology," Technology and Culture 28 (1987): 804-27; Milton Mueller, "The Switchboard Problem: Scale, Signaling, and Organization in Manual Telephone Switching, 1877-1897," Technology and Culture 30 (1989): 534-60; Walter G. Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History (1990; reprint, Baltimore, 1993); Ross Thomson, The Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989); and Douglas Harper, Working Knowledge: Skill and Community in a Small Shop (Chicago, 1987; reprint, Berkeley, Calif., 1992).
17. Kenneth J. Arrow, "The Economic Implications of Learning by Doing," Review of Economic Studies 29 (1962): 155-73. Rosenberg in turn examined the gains in efficiency accruing to product end users as a result of "learning by using." See Nathan Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 120-40.
18. Kenneth J. Arrow, "The Economic Implications of Learning by Doing," Review of Economic Studies 29 (1962): 155-73. Rosenberg in turn examined the gains in efficiency accruing to product end users as a result of "learning by using." See Nathan Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 120-40.
19. T. P. Wright, "Factors Affecting the Cost of Airplanes," Journal of Aeronautical Science 3 (1936): 122-28. See also Arrow; and Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box, pp. 120-40.
20. T. P. Wright, "Factors Affecting the Cost of Airplanes," Journal of Aeronautical Science 3 (1936): 122-28. See also Arrow; and Rosenberg, Inside the Black Box, pp. 120-40.
21. Erik Lundberg, Producktivitet och räntabilitet (Stockholm, 1961); H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction (1985; reprint, Chicago, 1992), pp. 51-78; Harper; Jean Lave, Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life (New York, 1988).
22. Erik Lundberg, Producktivitet och räntabilitet (Stockholm, 1961); H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction (1985; reprint, Chicago, 1992), pp. 51-78; Harper; Jean Lave, Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life (New York, 1988).
23. Erik Lundberg, Producktivitet och räntabilitet (Stockholm, 1961); H. M. Collins, Changing Order: Replication and Induction (1985; reprint, Chicago, 1992), pp. 51-78; Harper; Jean Lave, Cognition in Practice: Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life (New York, 1988).
24. Nathan Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1976), p. 78, and Inside the Black Box, pp. 120-40; Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It, p. 186.
25. Nathan Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1976), p. 78, and Inside the Black Box, pp. 120-40; Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It, p. 186.
26. Nathan Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (New York, 1976), p. 78, and Inside the Black Box, pp. 120-40; Vincenti, What Engineers Know and How They Know It, p. 186.
27. Our data on machine failures in the factory and on the process by which these were identified were collected through interviews with both users (the process engineers at the factories where the machines were installed) and developers (key people in the process equipment development teams). Most interviewees had been with the projects studied from the beginning. Initial interviews were conducted on site, where respondents could refer to contemporary logbooks and demonstrate the problems they described on the actual equipment. Interviews lasted from three to six hours, including plant tours. Respondents were interviewed both separately and, to the extent possible, together. Follow-up questions were discussed in additional face-to-face meetings and by telephone and electronic mail.
28. Problems that met these criteria were identified by contacting both the engineers using each type of machine in the factories, and the engineers involved in designing the novel equipment. We asked each for an exhaustive list of all "significant" problems observed after factory use of each machine began and subsequently diagnosed. Note that factory machine users thus determined both what constituted a problem and what constituted a solution. A problem might be a machine failure to perform as designed, or significant user dissatisfaction with a machine that was functioning as intended by its designers.
29. Marrie J. Tyre and Eric von Hippel, "Locating Adaptive Learning: The Situated Nature of Adaptive Learning in Organizations," Working Paper BPS 3568-93 (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, Cambridge, Mass., May 1993); forthcoming in Organization Science.
30. Marrie J. Tyre and Eric von Hippel, "Locating Adaptive Learning: The Situated Nature of Adaptive Learning in Organizations," Working Paper BPS 3568-93 (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, Cambridge, Mass., May 1993); forthcoming in Organization Science.
31. Three of the cases coded under 1b in table 1 deserve special mention. In these, unanticipated field problems were caused by the premature failure of machine parts due to design error (e.g., an inappropriately small bearing was used in the machine and quickly failed). It seems to us reasonable to classify these under "information known by lab but not used" because the problems could have been anticipated and avoided prior to field use by using only information available to the lab and, e.g., subjecting the machine to longer life tests in the lab. (The intended field operating life of the machine was known to the lab.) If the attributes of the use situation causing the failure had not been known to the lab in cases of premature parts failure (e.g., "We didn't know that you were going to process such heavy parts"), we would have coded the cases under category 1a in table 1.
32. Innovation by users is not a rare phenomenon. See Eric von Hippel, The Sources of Innovation ( New York, 1988), passim and esp. pp. 131-207, for approximately fifty short histories of user-developed innovations in several fields.
33. Rosenberg. Inside the Black Box (n. 3 above), p. 122; Karl F. Habermeier, "Product Use and Product Improvement," Research Policy 19 (1990): 271-83.
34. Rosenberg. Inside the Black Box (n. 3 above), p. 122; Karl F. Habermeier, "Product Use and Product Improvement," Research Policy 19 (1990): 271-83.
35. Thomas J. Allen, "Studies of the Problem-Solving Process in Engineering Design," IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management EM-13 (1966): 72-83; David L. Marples, "The Decisions of Engineering Design," IRE Transactions on Engineering Management (1961): 55-71.
36. Thomas J. Allen, "Studies of the Problem-Solving Process in Engineering Design," IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management EM-13 (1966): 72-83; David L. Marples, "The Decisions of Engineering Design," IRE Transactions on Engineering Management (1961): 55-71.
37. Jill Larkin, John McDermott, Dorothea P. Simon, and Herbert A. Simon, "Expert and Novice Performance in Solving Physics Problems," Science 208 (June 20, 1980): 1335-42.
38. On cooperative games, see, e.g., Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York, 1984) For an introductory discussion of models of mutual adaptation, see Charles A. Lave and James G. March, An Introduction to Models in the Social Sciences (New York, 1975).
39. On cooperative games, see, e.g., Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York, 1984) For an introductory discussion of models of mutual adaptation, see Charles A. Lave and James G. March, An Introduction to Models in the Social Sciences (New York, 1975).
40. H. A. Simon, "The Structure of III Structured Problems," Artificial Intelligence 4 (1973): 181-201, and The Sciences of the Artificial, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), p. 149. See also Harry E. Pople, Jr., "Heuristic Methods for Imposing Structure on III- Structured Problems: The Structuring of Medical Diagnostics," chap. 5 of Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, ed. Peter Szolovits (Boulder, Colo., 1982).
41. H. A. Simon, "The Structure of III Structured Problems," Artificial Intelligence 4 (1973): 181-201, and The Sciences of the Artificial, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), p. 149. See also Harry E. Pople, Jr., "Heuristic Methods for Imposing Structure on III- Structured Problems: The Structuring of Medical Diagnostics," chap. 5 of Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, ed. Peter Szolovits (Boulder, Colo., 1982).
42. H. A. Simon, "The Structure of III Structured Problems," Artificial Intelligence 4 (1973): 181-201, and The Sciences of the Artificial, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), p. 149. See also Harry E. Pople, Jr., "Heuristic Methods for Imposing Structure on III-Structured Problems: The Structuring of Medical Diagnostics," chap. 5 of Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, ed. Peter Szolovits (Boulder, Colo., 1982).
43. John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (1985; reprint, Cambridge, Mass., 1989), p. 107.
44. Kazuhiro Mishina, "Learning by New Experiences," Division of Research Working Paper 92-084 (Harvard Business School, Boston, May 1992).
45. Marcie Tyre and Wanda Orlikowski, "Windows of Opportunity: Temporal Patterns of Technological Adaptation in Organizations," Organization Science 5 (1994): 98-118. Of course, such a pattern cannot be taken as an iron rule. After all, desirable improvements might sometimes be perceived very quickly, or the symptom of an existing interference between a machine and a use environment might not occur immediately when the machine (or product or service) is introduced. With respect to the latter, consider that the machine and/or the environment might not be configured in a way that would cause a problem associated with a preexisting field condition to be immediately expressed. For example, if a problem was associated with the "annual report" section of a software package, the user might not see a related symptom until that feature of the software was used. Also, the symptom of a problem may not be manifested immediately, as in the case of premature wear failures in a machine. (We had three such cases in our problem sample, and two of these took many months to emerge.)
46. Eric von Hippel, "'Sticky Information' and the Locus of Problem Solving: Implications for Innovation," Management Science 40 (1994): 429-39. This article points out that problems whose solutions require access to sticky information located at a single site will tend to be solved at that site, other things being equal. It also notes that when problem solvers require access to sticky information located at more than one site, problem-solving activities will tend to iterate among those sites.
47. Leonard-Barton (n. 1 above).
48. Initially developed for use in software development, rapid prototyping is explicitly designed to shuttle repeatedly between manufacturer and user in order to better determine the real need for a given software package. First, key functions of proposed software products are simulated (prototyped) and provided to users for trial. Users then experiment with these prototypes and ask manufacturers for improvements based on what they have learned. This back-and-forth continues until users are satisfied. This approach has been found to be better at creating a good fit between need and solution than methods that rely on the accuracy of an initial statement of need by users. See, e.g., Barry W. Boehm, Terence E. Gray, and Thomas Seewaldt, "Prototyping versus Specifying: A Multiproject Experiment," IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering SE-10 (1984): 290-303: and Hassan Gomaa, "The Impact of Rapid Prototyping on Specifying User Requirements," ACM Sigsoft Software Engineering Notes 8 (1983): 17-28.
49. Initially developed for use in software development, rapid prototyping is explicitly designed to shuttle repeatedly between manufacturer and user in order to better determine the real need for a given software package. First, key functions of proposed software products are simulated (prototyped) and provided to users for trial. Users then experiment with these prototypes and ask manufacturers for improvements based on what they have learned. This back-and-forth continues until users are satisfied. This approach has been found to be better at creating a good fit between need and solution than methods that rely on the accuracy of an initial statement of need by users. See, e.g., Barry W. Boehm, Terence E. Gray, and Thomas Seewaldt, "Prototyping versus Specifying: A Multiproject Experiment," IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering SE-10 (1984): 290-303: and Hassan Gomaa, "The Impact of Rapid Prototyping on Specifying User Requirements," ACM Sigsoft Software Engineering Notes 8 (1983): 17-28.