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Volumn 26, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 767-797

Saving lives or saving multiple identities?: The double dynamic of resuscitation scripts

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EID: 0030491308     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631296026004003     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (29)

References (92)
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    • note
    • See, for example, Shakespeare: Death May Usurp on Nature many Hours And yet the Fire of Life Kindle Again The Overpressed Spirits. I have heard Of an Egyptian had Nine Hours been Dead, By good Appliance was Recovered. (William Shakespeare, Pericles, Act III, Scene II.)
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    • Although no agreed-upon survival ratios exist for the United States, most medical researchers accept that roughly 10% of out-of-hospital resuscitative efforts succeed in stabilizing the patient for a period of time. Of the 112 resuscitative efforts I observed, only 11 patients were stabilized. Until the 1992 Utstein conference dealt explicitly with those issues, there was no agreement on what counts as a resuscitative effort, when it starts, when it ends and what counts as survival. The success ratios in the United States vary from 2% to 33%. See Mickey S. Eisenberg, Bruce T. Horwood, Richard O. Cummins, Robin Reynolds-Haertle and Thomas R. Hearne, 'Cardiac Arrest And Resuscitation: A Tale of 29 Cities', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 19, No. 2 (February 1990), 179-86; William A. Gray, Robert J. Capone and Albert S. Most, 'Unsuccessful Emergency Medical Resuscitation - Are Continued Efforts in the Emergency Department Justified?', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 325, No. 20 (14 November 1991), 1393-98.
    • (1990) Annals of Emergency Medicine , vol.19 , Issue.2 , pp. 179-186
    • Eisenberg, M.S.1    Horwood, B.T.2    Cummins, R.O.3    Reynolds-Haertle, R.4    Hearne, T.R.5
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    • Although no agreed-upon survival ratios exist for the United States, most medical researchers accept that roughly 10% of out-of-hospital resuscitative efforts succeed in stabilizing the patient for a period of time. Of the 112 resuscitative efforts I observed, only 11 patients were stabilized. Until the 1992 Utstein conference dealt explicitly with those issues, there was no agreement on what counts as a resuscitative effort, when it starts, when it ends and what counts as survival. The success ratios in the United States vary from 2% to 33%. See Mickey S. Eisenberg, Bruce T. Horwood, Richard O. Cummins, Robin Reynolds-Haertle and Thomas R. Hearne, 'Cardiac Arrest And Resuscitation: A Tale of 29 Cities', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 19, No. 2 (February 1990), 179-86; William A. Gray, Robert J. Capone and Albert S. Most, 'Unsuccessful Emergency Medical Resuscitation - Are Continued Efforts in the Emergency Department Justified?', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 325, No. 20 (14 November 1991), 1393-98.
    • (1991) New England Journal of Medicine , vol.325 , Issue.20 , pp. 1393-1398
    • Gray, W.A.1    Capone, R.J.2    Most, A.S.3
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    • note
    • It is therefore important to note that I write about resuscitative attempts or efforts, and not 'resuscitations'. The latter is a relative small subgroup of the former.
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    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
    • (1963) Identities and Interactions
    • McCall, G.J.1    Simmons, J.L.2
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    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
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    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
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    • Identity theory: Developments and extensions
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    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
    • (1987) Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives
    • Stryker, S.1
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    • Pragmatism and social interactionism
    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
    • (1986) American Sociological Review , vol.51 , pp. 9-29
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    • Power, technologies and the phenomenology of conventions: On being allergic to onions
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    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
    • (1991) A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination
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    • New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
    • For a discussion of the identity concept in social psychology and multiple identities, see: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959); George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Identities and Interactions (New York: Free Press 1963); George H. Mead, Mind, Self and Society (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1934); Gregory P. Stone, 'Appearance and the Self, in Arnold Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 86-118; Sheldon Stryker, 'Identity Theory: Developments and Extensions', in Krysia Yardley and Terry Honess (eds), Self and Society: Psychosocial Perspectives (New York: Wiley, 1987); Dmitri Shalin, 'Pragmatism and Social Interactionism', American Sociological Review, Vol. 51 (1986), 9-29; Susan Leigh Star, 'Power, Technologies and the Phenomenology of Conventions: On Being Allergic to Onions', in John Law (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London. Routledge, 1991), T.R. Young, The Drama of Social Life (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986).
    • (1986) The Drama of Social Life
    • Young, T.R.1
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    • The de-scription of technical objects
    • Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    • My usage of 'script' is different from Madeleine Akrich's semiotic interpretation of technology: see Madeleine Akrich, 'The De-Scription of Technical Objects ', in Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (eds), Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), 205-24. Akrich discusses the scripts embedded in technologies. She explores what the light-kit 'says' to the African user of it. The actor-network theorist creatively translates what is not stated literally in the form of a rule, instruction or order into a verbal 'script' embodied in conventional uses of material artefacts. I use 'script' in the more ordinary sense of the term. A resuscitation protocol is quite literally a script, like a theatre play.
    • (1992) Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change , pp. 205-224
    • Akrich, M.1
  • 25
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    • note
    • I take design process in a very broad sense. Design does not stop at the door of the laboratory but continues, in the case of CPR, on policy levels.
  • 27
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    • From "out goes the bad air . . ." to "ABC": A socio-historical analysis of the development of resuscitation techniques
    • 25 August
    • CPR is the result of a number of different medical research developments. Mouth-to-mouth ventilation originated in artificial ventilation research, prompted by high numbers of drowning victims, and goes back to the eighteenth century. Since World War II, military-sponsored research in a number of laboratories established mouth-to-mouth ventilation as the best and easiest way to artificially ventilate a patient. Closed chest cardiac massage was (re)discovered in the laboratories of the Johns Hopkins University around 1960. This research was funded by electric utility researchers. See Stefan Timmermans, 'From "Out goes the bad air . . ." to "ABC": A Socio-Historical Analysis of the Development of Resuscitation Techniques' (paper presented at the American Sociological Association annual meeting in Los Angeles, 25 August 1994).
    • (1994) American Sociological Association Annual Meeting in Los Angeles
    • Timmermans, S.1
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    • note
    • All names of patients are fictitious.
  • 31
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    • Dallas, TX: AHA
    • This is the CPR protocol of the American Heart Association before the 1992 revision of CPR guidelines: see Basic Life Support Manual (Dallas, TX: AHA, 1987), 35. The newest protocol is more concise. The protocol shown was the protocol used while I did my study.
    • (1987) Basic Life Support Manual , pp. 35
  • 32
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    • note
    • There is a different script for the resuscitation of dogs, but I will not deal with that script.
  • 33
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    • When words fail: A single case analysis
    • November
    • For a detailed ethnomethodological analysis of 911 calls, see Jack Whalen, Don H. Zimmerman and Marilyn R. Whalen, 'When Words Fail: A Single Case Analysis', Social Problems, Vol. 35, No. 4 (November 1988), 335-62.
    • (1988) Social Problems , vol.35 , Issue.4 , pp. 335-362
    • Whalen, J.1    Zimmerman, D.H.2    Whalen, M.R.3
  • 34
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    • When is a tool a tool?: Multiple meanings of artifacts in human activity
    • Engestrom (ed.), Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy
    • Yrgo Engestrom, 'When is a Tool a Tool?: Multiple Meanings of Artifacts in Human Activity', in Engestrom (ed.), Learning, Working and Imaging (Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy, 1990), 171-97.
    • (1990) Learning, Working and Imaging , pp. 171-197
    • Engestrom, Y.1
  • 35
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    • note
    • Age plays a small role in variations of the basic CPR script. Because of their different physiological condition, an adapted script has been developed for children and newborns.
  • 37
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    • note
    • In the community where I performed observations, paramedics answer rescue calls. In other communities, emergency medical technicians will respond to rescue calls.
  • 38
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    • Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care
    • 28 October
    • This is actually a result of the last revision of the CPR protocols in 1992: see 'Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiac Care', Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 268, No. 16 (28 October 1992), 2171-295. In the previous protocols, the rescuer had to call out 'help', or 'Call an ambulance', before starting CPR. In the new protocols, the first task is to make sure that an emergency medical system is effectively alerted (the rescuer talks to the emergency system operator) before attempting CPR. One of the reasons for this change is that paramedics are now equipped with portable defibrillators, and these are considered a tighter link between a failed heart and medical equipment.
    • (1992) Journal of fthe American Medical Association , vol.268 , Issue.16 , pp. 2171-2295
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    • The construction of medical disposals: Medical sociology and medical problem solving in clinical practice
    • March
    • Marc Berg, 'The Construction of Medical Disposals: Medical Sociology and Medical Problem Solving in Clinical Practice', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 14, No. 2 (March 1992), 151-80; Claudine Herzlich and Janine Pierret, 'The Social Construction of the Patient: Patients and Illnesses in Other Ages', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 20, No. 2 (January 1985), 145-51.
    • (1992) Sociology of Health and Illness , vol.14 , Issue.2 , pp. 151-180
    • Berg, M.1
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    • The social construction of the patient: Patients and illnesses in other ages
    • January
    • Marc Berg, 'The Construction of Medical Disposals: Medical Sociology and Medical Problem Solving in Clinical Practice', Sociology of Health and Illness, Vol. 14, No. 2 (March 1992), 151-80; Claudine Herzlich and Janine Pierret, 'The Social Construction of the Patient: Patients and Illnesses in Other Ages', Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 20, No. 2 (January 1985), 145-51.
    • (1985) Social Science and Medicine , vol.20 , Issue.2 , pp. 145-151
    • Herzlich, C.1    Pierret, J.2
  • 41
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    • The electrical current delivered by defibrillators is measured in units called joules or watt-seconds. Manual defibrillators can deliver countershocks measuring from 10 to 360 joules
    • James D. Heckman (ed.), Park Ridge, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 5th edn
    • I realize that physicists wll be surprised to see 'current' measured in 'Joules'! However, my handbook says: 'The electrical current delivered by defibrillators is measured in units called Joules or watt-seconds. Manual defibrillators can deliver countershocks measuring from 10 to 360 Joules': James D. Heckman (ed.), Emergency Care and Transportation of the Sick and Injured (Park Ridge, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 5th edn, 1992), 823.
    • (1992) Emergency Care and Transportation of the Sick and Injured , pp. 823
  • 42
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    • note
    • This is, at the moment, a very controversial issue in the world of emergency medicine. Most health-care providers claim that the strongest links can be made in the field, and that the transfer of patients to the emergency department is a waste of resources in many 'hopeless' cases. However, the current resuscitation script still emphasizes that patients must be transported to the emergency department. One reason for the transportation is that paramedics or emergency medical technicians are not allowed to declare a patient dead. The paramedics must transport the body to a physician in an emergency department.
  • 43
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    • Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 2nd edn
    • Increasingly, paramedics are already following the guidelines of the ACLS script. The different protocols of the ACLS script fill a book. See American Heart Association, Textbook of Advanced Cardiac Life Support (Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 2nd edn, 1990).
    • (1990) Textbook of Advanced Cardiac Life Support
  • 44
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    • note
    • I would be paged as well.
  • 45
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    • note 32
    • Asystole is the name of the cardiac rhythm. Ventricular Asystole represents the total absence of ventricular electrical activity. The heart monitor shows a flat line: see American Heart Association, op. cit. note 32, 79.
    • Textbook of Advanced Cardiac Life Support , pp. 79
  • 47
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    • note
    • Again regional variation is possible. In one of the hospitals in which I interviewed emergency medical staff, a pharmacist was part of the resuscitation team.
  • 49
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    • The manufacture of bodies in surgery
    • Stefan Hirschauer, 'The Manufacture of Bodies in Surgery', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 21 (1991), 279-319.
    • (1991) Social Studies of Science , vol.21 , pp. 279-319
    • Hirschauer, S.1
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    • Reframing and grounding nonhuman agency: What makes a fetus an agent?
    • Monica Casper, 'Reframing and Grounding Nonhuman Agency: What Makes a Fetus an Agent?', The American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 37 (1994), 839-56.
    • (1994) The American Behavioral Scientist , vol.37 , pp. 839-856
    • Casper, M.1
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    • note
    • This is partly due to the speed and unexpected character of resuscitative efforts. In most cases, identity features which are relevant for general hospital care, such as insurance status, cannot be retrieved in time, since the patient was not properly checked in and charts are unavailable.
  • 56
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    • note 35
    • For the criteria that are used to reach this decision and the time frame, see Timmermans op. cit. note 35.
    • Time for Dying
    • Timmermans1
  • 57
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    • note
    • All patients who die less than 24 hours after admittance need to be seen by a coroner.
  • 58
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    • note
    • It is true that since the daughters did not participate in the resuscitative effort (they were kept in the counseling room), their mother did not loosen these social identities for them. The 'restoration' of the layers of multiplicity needs to be viewed in the context of the resuscitative effort.
  • 59
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    • note 5
    • Some readers of an earlier version of this paper wondered why some people survive CPR, and others do not. The literature contains many variables which might explain survival. Eisenberg et al. (op. cit. note 5) list the average age of the patient, the sex, whether the cardiac arrest was witnessed or not, the average response time, the initial cardiac rhythm and the Emergency Medical system.
    • Time for Dying
    • Eisenberg1
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    • note
    • In theory, George could survive two out-of-hospital resuscitations. However, in practice it is very rare to have somebody who survives one out-of-hospital resuscitation to the point that he or she is discharged from the hospital. Although, in my research, I was not always able to check the patients to the point of discharge, I only know with certainty of one person out of 112 resuscitative efforts who survived an out-of-hospital resuscitation to the point of discharge. I am also not referring to the 'roller-coaster' phenomenon in which patients are resuscitated two or more times in a limited time period.
  • 64
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    • note
    • In this case, 'script' is used in a more metaphorical sense: see note 14.
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    • Ethical issues in adult resuscitation
    • February
    • Each of these terms refer to a different aspect of no 'heroic measures'. The living will is a statutorily defined document providing very specific instructions, by which people convey their requests in a fashion that is legally enforceable when it has a power of attorney. Often the living will requires an assessment of the patient's decision-making capacity and the presence of terminal illness, the identification of proxies and the formulation of requests into specific treatment plans: see also Timothy J. Crimmins, 'Ethical Issues in Adult Resuscitation', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 22, No. 2 (February 1993), 495-50. In the US, the federal Patient Self Determination Act (Omnibus Reconciliation Act of1990, Pub. L No. 101-508, 4206-751) requires certain health-care agencies to inform their patients of their rights under state living will laws. Advance directives include scribbled notations by the patient or verbal requests by family members about what the patient would have wanted: see Derek A. Siner, 'Advance Directives in Emergency Medicine: Medical, Legal and Ethical Implications', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 18 (1989), 1364-69. Finally, 'Do Not Resuscitate' (DNR) or 'Do Not Attempt Resuscitation' (DNAR) usually refer to physician orders directed towards healthcare personnel to withhold the specific therapy of CPR: see Crimmins, op. cit.
    • (1993) Annals of Emergency Medicine , vol.22 , Issue.2 , pp. 495-550
    • Crimmins, T.J.1
  • 66
    • 0024800281 scopus 로고
    • Advance directives in emergency medicine: Medical, legal and ethical implications
    • Each of these terms refer to a different aspect of no 'heroic measures'. The living will is a statutorily defined document providing very specific instructions, by which people convey their requests in a fashion that is legally enforceable when it has a power of attorney. Often the living will requires an assessment of the patient's decision-making capacity and the presence of terminal illness, the identification of proxies and the formulation of requests into specific treatment plans: see also Timothy J. Crimmins, 'Ethical Issues in Adult Resuscitation', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 22, No. 2 (February 1993), 495-50. In the US, the federal Patient Self Determination Act (Omnibus Reconciliation Act of1990, Pub. L No. 101-508, 4206-751) requires certain health-care agencies to inform their patients of their rights under state living will laws. Advance directives include scribbled notations by the patient or verbal requests by family members about what the patient would have wanted: see Derek A. Siner, 'Advance Directives in Emergency Medicine: Medical, Legal and Ethical Implications', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 18 (1989), 1364-69. Finally, 'Do Not Resuscitate' (DNR) or 'Do Not Attempt Resuscitation' (DNAR) usually refer to physician orders directed towards healthcare personnel to withhold the specific therapy of CPR: see Crimmins, op. cit.
    • (1989) Annals of Emergency Medicine , vol.18 , pp. 1364-1369
    • Siner, D.A.1
  • 67
    • 0027512254 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Each of these terms refer to a different aspect of no 'heroic measures'. The living will is a statutorily defined document providing very specific instructions, by which people convey their requests in a fashion that is legally enforceable when it has a power of attorney. Often the living will requires an assessment of the patient's decision-making capacity and the presence of terminal illness, the identification of proxies and the formulation of requests into specific treatment plans: see also Timothy J. Crimmins, 'Ethical Issues in Adult Resuscitation', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 22, No. 2 (February 1993), 495-50. In the US, the federal Patient Self Determination Act (Omnibus Reconciliation Act of1990, Pub. L No. 101-508, 4206-751) requires certain health-care agencies to inform their patients of their rights under state living will laws. Advance directives include scribbled notations by the patient or verbal requests by family members about what the patient would have wanted: see Derek A. Siner, 'Advance Directives in Emergency Medicine: Medical, Legal and Ethical Implications', Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 18 (1989), 1364-69. Finally, 'Do Not Resuscitate' (DNR) or 'Do Not Attempt Resuscitation' (DNAR) usually refer to physician orders directed towards healthcare personnel to withhold the specific therapy of CPR: see Crimmins, op. cit.
    • Annals of Emergency Medicine
    • Crimmins1
  • 68
    • 0026522286 scopus 로고
    • The "no-code" tattoo - An ethical dilemma
    • March
    • However, even that is not legally binding; see Kenneth V. Iserson, 'The "No-Code" Tattoo - An Ethical Dilemma', Western Journal of Medicine, Vol. 156, No. 3 (March 1992), 309-12.
    • (1992) Western Journal of Medicine , vol.156 , Issue.3 , pp. 309-312
    • Iserson, K.V.1
  • 69
    • 85033742065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 30
    • This is how it is taught in emergency technician and paramedic classes: see, for example, Heckman (ed.), op. cit. note 30, 23.
    • Western Journal of Medicine , pp. 23
    • Heckman1
  • 70
    • 0025888902 scopus 로고
    • Change in survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and its effect on coronary heart disease mortality
    • 15 October
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1991) American Journal of Epidemiology , vol.134 , Issue.8 , pp. 851-861
    • Tillinghast, S.J.1
  • 71
    • 0027194537 scopus 로고
    • Racial differences in the incidence of cardiac arrest and subsequent survival
    • 26 August
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1993) New England Journal of Medicine , vol.329 , Issue.9 , pp. 600-606
    • Becker, L.B.1
  • 72
    • 0027407271 scopus 로고
    • Socioeconomic status and prediction of ventricular fibrillation survival
    • February
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1993) American Journal of Public Health , vol.83 , Issue.2 , pp. 245-248
    • Hallstrom, A.1    Boutin, P.2    Cobb, L.3    Johnson, E.4
  • 73
    • 0027407271 scopus 로고
    • The social loss of dying patients
    • Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), New York: The American Nursing Company
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1972) The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View , pp. 141-147
    • Glaser, B.1    Strauss, A.2
  • 74
    • 0027407271 scopus 로고
    • D.O.A
    • A. Strauss (ed.), New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1983) Where Medicine Fails , pp. 275-294
    • Sudnow, D.1
  • 75
    • 0027407271 scopus 로고
    • Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
    • In the Midwestern town where I did my observations, I have not seen any obvious discrimination of the emergency medical staff against race, gender, sexual orientation or socieconomic status. In my research, neither the length of resuscitations nor the final outcome can be predicted, on the basis of these traditional sociological variables. Other research did find a significant relationship between sex and survival rate (Stanley J. Tillinghast et al., 'Change in Survival from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and its Effect on Coronary Heart Disease Mortality', American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 134, No. 8 [15 October 1991], 851-61); and between race and survival after cardiac arrests (Lance B. Becker et al., 'Racial Differences in the Incidence of Cardiac Arrest and Subsequent Survival', New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 9 [26 August 1993], 600-06). Not only was the incidence of cardiac arrest in Chicago during 1988 significantly higher among blacks in every age group than among whites: the survival rate of blacks after an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was only one-third of that among whites (3% versus 1%). Other research shows that a relationship exists between socioeconomic status and survival rate: see Alfred Hallstrom, Paul Boutin, Leonard Cobb and Elise Johnson, 'Socioeconomic Status and Prediction of Ventricular Fibrillation Survival', American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 83, No. 2 (February 1993), 245-48. Also, Glaser and Strauss (Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, 'The Social Loss of Dying Patients', in Michele Browning and Esther Lewis (eds), The Dying Patient: A Nurse's Point of View [New York: The American Nursing Company, 1972], 141-47 ) and Sudnow (David Sudnow, 'D.O.A.', in A. Strauss (ed.), Where Medicine Fails [New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 4th edn, 1983], 275-94; Sudnow, Passing On [Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967]) have pointed out that in their research the social value of the patient influences the treatment s/he will receive. However, even if there exists a significant relationship between survival rate and gender or socioeconomic status, this does not necessarily imply that the emergency department personnel would be discriminating. Especially in resuscitative efforts, access to and knowledge about an emergency medical system is crucial.
    • (1967) Passing On
    • Sudnow1
  • 77
    • 85033743393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Sudden Infant Death Syndrome.
  • 78
    • 0022746620 scopus 로고
    • The integration of computing and routine work
    • For a discussion of 'work arounds' in a different context, see Les Gasser, 'The Integration of Computing and Routine Work', ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, Vol. 4 (1986), 205-25.
    • (1986) ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems , vol.4 , pp. 205-225
  • 80
    • 21344496641 scopus 로고
    • The paradox of nursing terminal patients in a Belgian General Hospital
    • This analysis also sheds a different light on the so-called 'hardened attitude' or the 'callousness' of the medical professionals. The dilemma between becoming involved with and keeping an (emotionally safe) distance from dying patients is already tipped in favour of remaining at a distance, because of the scope of the technoscientific resuscitation script. See also Stefan Timmermans, 'The Paradox of Nursing Terminal Patients in a Belgian General Hospital', Omega, Vol. 27, No. 4 (1993), 281-95.
    • (1993) Omega , vol.27 , Issue.4 , pp. 281-295
    • Timmermans, S.1
  • 81
    • 85033746698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 42
    • Status passage refers to the movement through different statuses and positions: see Strauss, op. cit. note 42.
    • Omega
    • Strauss1
  • 82
    • 85033745486 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 10
    • See also Star, op. cit. note 10.
    • Omega
    • Star1
  • 83
    • 70649085172 scopus 로고
    • Medicalization and social control
    • For an overview of the literature on medicalization in medical sociology, see Peter Conrad, 'Medicalization and Social Control', Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), 209-32.
    • (1992) Annual Review of Sociology , vol.18 , pp. 209-232
    • Conrad, P.1
  • 85
    • 85033760928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The problem here is that paramedics are not allowed to declare people dead (except in very obvious cases, such as decapitation and obvious rigor mortis). This could be changed by expanding the mandate of paramedics, by adding physicians to emergency teams (this is currently done in Belgium, and physicians are part of helicopter emergency teams in the US), or by radio transmission of EKG rhythms from ambulances to emergency departments.
  • 86
    • 84970642045 scopus 로고
    • Institutional ecology, "translations" and boundary objects: Amateurs and professionals in Berkeley's museum of vertebrate zoology, 1907-39
    • Star and Griesemer define a boundary object: 'an object which is both plastic enough to adapt to local needs and the constraints of the several parties employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common meaning across sites': see Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, 'Institutional Ecology, "Translations" and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19 (1989), 387-420, at 391.
    • (1989) Social Studies of Science , vol.19 , pp. 387-420
    • Star, S.L.1    Griesemer, J.R.2
  • 88
    • 0002892958 scopus 로고
    • The social construction of facts and artifacts: Or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other
    • Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Pinch (eds), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    • Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker, 'The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts: Or How the Sociology of Science and the Sociology of Technology Might Benefit Each Other', in Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 17-51.
    • (1987) The Social Construction of Technological Systems , pp. 17-51
    • Pinch, T.J.1    Bijker, W.E.2
  • 90
    • 84930068218 scopus 로고
    • The values of quantification
    • John Law (ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
    • See Jean Lave, 'The Values of Quantification', in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge?, Sociological Review Monograph No.32 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 88-111, for a related conclusion with regard to quantification.
    • (1986) Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge?, Sociological Review Monograph , Issue.32 , pp. 88-111
    • Lave, J.1


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