More than misconceptions: Multiple perspectives on student knowledge and reasoning, and an appropriate role for education research

American Journal of Physics

Volumn 64, Issue 10, 1996, Pages 1316-1325

  Hammer, David ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030486205     PISSN: 00029505     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1119/1.18376     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. F. Reif, "Scientific approaches to science education," Phys. Today. 39(10), 48-54 (1986).
2. E. F. Redish, "Implications of cognitive studies for teaching physics," Am. J. Phys. 62(9), 796-803 (1994).
3. J. Mestre and J. Touger, "Cognitive research - what's in it for physics teachers?," Phys. Teach. 27(9), 447-456 (1989); L. C. McDermott, "What we teach and what is learned - Closing the gap," Am. J. Phys. 59(4), 301-315 (1991); A. Van Heuvelen, "Learning to think like a physicist: A review of research-based instructional strategies," Am. J. Phys. 59(10), 891-897 (1991); F. Reif, "Millikan Lecture 1994: Understanding and teaching important scientific thought processes," Am. J. Phys. 63(17-32), (1995).
4. J. Mestre and J. Touger, "Cognitive research - what's in it for physics teachers?," Phys. Teach. 27(9), 447-456 (1989); L. C. McDermott, "What we teach and what is learned - Closing the gap," Am. J. Phys. 59(4), 301-315 (1991); A. Van Heuvelen, "Learning to think like a physicist: A review of research-based instructional strategies," Am. J. Phys. 59(10), 891-897 (1991); F. Reif, "Millikan Lecture 1994: Understanding and teaching important scientific thought processes," Am. J. Phys. 63(17-32), (1995).
5. J. Mestre and J. Touger, "Cognitive research - what's in it for physics teachers?," Phys. Teach. 27(9), 447-456 (1989); L. C. McDermott, "What we teach and what is learned - Closing the gap," Am. J. Phys. 59(4), 301-315 (1991); A. Van Heuvelen, "Learning to think like a physicist: A review of research-based instructional strategies," Am. J. Phys. 59(10), 891-897 (1991); F. Reif, "Millikan Lecture 1994: Understanding and teaching important scientific thought processes," Am. J. Phys. 63(17-32), (1995).
6. J. Mestre and J. Touger, "Cognitive research - what's in it for physics teachers?," Phys. Teach. 27(9), 447-456 (1989); L. C. McDermott, "What we teach and what is learned - Closing the gap," Am. J. Phys. 59(4), 301-315 (1991); A. Van Heuvelen, "Learning to think like a physicist: A review of research-based instructional strategies," Am. J. Phys. 59(10), 891-897 (1991); F. Reif, "Millikan Lecture 1994: Understanding and teaching important scientific thought processes," Am. J. Phys. 63(17-32), (1995).
7. Reference 1, p. 53.
8. K. E. Metz, "Reassessment of developmental constraints on children's science instruction," Rev. Ed. Res. 65(2), 93-127 (1995); U. Wilensky, "Abstract meditations on the concrete and concrete implications for mathematics education," in Constructionism, edited by I. Harel and S. Papert (Ablex, Norwood, NJ, 1991).
9. K. E. Metz, "Reassessment of developmental constraints on children's science instruction," Rev. Ed. Res. 65(2), 93-127 (1995); U. Wilensky, "Abstract meditations on the concrete and concrete implications for mathematics education," in Constructionism, edited by I. Harel and S. Papert (Ablex, Norwood, NJ, 1991).
10. A. diSessa, "Towards an epistemology of physics," Cognit. Instruct. 10(2-3), 105-225 (1993).
11. J. Smith, A. diSessa, and J. Roschelle, "Misconceptions reconceived: A constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition," J. Learn. Sci. 3(2), 115-163 (1993).
12. Reference 1, p. 48.
13. Some philosophers of science would debate whether this is a valid understanding of what physics has accomplished. See, e.g., N. Cartwright, How the Laws of Physics Lie (Oxford U.P., New York, 1983). I assert here only that this is what most physicists and physics instructors expect; I do not enter the debate regarding the validity of such expectations.
14. For arguments to this effect, see A. V. Cicourel, Method and Measurement in Sociology (The Free Press, New York, 1964); and J. S. Bruner. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds (Harvard U.P., Cambridge, MA, 1986).
15. For arguments to this effect, see A. V. Cicourel, Method and Measurement in Sociology (The Free Press, New York, 1964); and J. S. Bruner. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds (Harvard U.P., Cambridge, MA, 1986).
16. Reference 2, p. 796.
17. For more complete account of the debate, see D. Hammer, "Misconceptions or p-prims: How may alternative perspectives of cognitive structure influence instructional perceptions and intentions?," J. Learn. Sci. 5 (2), 97-127 (1996).
18. For an account of activities early in the course, see D. Hammer, "Epistemological considerations in teaching introductory physics," Sci. Ed. 79(4), 393-413 (1995).
19. I am using pseudonyms for the students.
20. That is, I do not mean to imply any ontological distinctions.
21. Reference 12 is an extended comparison of the misconceptions and p-prims perspectives using the entire class discussion from which this exerpt is drawn.
22. J. Clement, "Student preconceptions in introductory mechanics," Am. J. Phys. 50, 66 (1982); I. A. Halloun and D. Hestenes, "Common sense concepts about motion," Am. J. Phys. 53(11), 1056 (1985); D. I. Dykstra, C. F. Boyle, and I. A. Monarch, "Studying conceptual change in learning physics," Sci. Ed. 76(6), 615-652 (1992).
23. J. Clement, "Student preconceptions in introductory mechanics," Am. J. Phys. 50, 66 (1982); I. A. Halloun and D. Hestenes, "Common sense concepts about motion," Am. J. Phys. 53(11), 1056 (1985); D. I. Dykstra, C. F. Boyle, and I. A. Monarch, "Studying conceptual change in learning physics," Sci. Ed. 76(6), 615-652 (1992).
24. J. Clement, "Student preconceptions in introductory mechanics," Am. J. Phys. 50, 66 (1982); I. A. Halloun and D. Hestenes, "Common sense concepts about motion," Am. J. Phys. 53(11), 1056 (1985); D. I. Dykstra, C. F. Boyle, and I. A. Monarch, "Studying conceptual change in learning physics," Sci. Ed. 76(6), 615-652 (1992).
25. M. McCloskey, "Naive theories of motion," in Mental Models, edited by D. Gentner and A. Stevens (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1983), pp. 299-324.
26. K. A. Strike and G. J. Posner, "A conceptual change view of learning and understanding," in Cognitive Structure and Conceptual Change, L. H. T. West and A. L. Pines, ed. (Academic, New York, 1985), pp. 211-231.
27. Not all authors would agree with this set of properties. In particular, some consider the term "misconceptions" to refer only to the phenomenology of patterns in students' responses to questions (Hestenes, 1994, private communication).
28. Reference 7, p. 124.
29. References 6 and 7. For related accounts, see J. Minstrell, "Facets of students' knowledge and relevant instruction," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (IPN, Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 110-128; D. E. Brown, "Re-focusing core intuitions: A concretizing role for analogy in conceptual change," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 30(10), 1273-1290 (1993).
30. References 6 and 7. For related accounts, see J. Minstrell, "Facets of students' knowledge and relevant instruction," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer (IPN, Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 110-128; D. E. Brown, "Re-focusing core intuitions: A concretizing role for analogy in conceptual change," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 30(10), 1273-1290 (1993).
31. References 6 and 7, L. Viennot, "Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics," Eur. J. Sci. Ed. 1(2), 205-221 (1979); L. C. McDermott, "Research on conceptual understanding in mechanics," Phys. Today. 37, 24-32 (July 1984).
32. References 6 and 7, L. Viennot, "Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics," Eur. J. Sci. Ed. 1(2), 205-221 (1979); L. C. McDermott, "Research on conceptual understanding in mechanics," Phys. Today. 37, 24-32 (July 1984).
33. diSessa (Ref. 6) called this p-prim continuing push, but the word push in that name may be misleading, as the agency need not take the form of a force. I will also use the name actuating agency instead of diSessa's force as mover.
34. A. diSessa, "Momentum flow as an alternative perspective in elementary mechanics," Am. J. Phys. 48(5), 365-369 (1980).
35. J. Piaget, "Piaget's theory," in Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology, edited by P. H. Mussen (Wiley, New York, 1970), pp. 703-732.
36. References 5 and 7. See the Metz article for a discussion of Piaget's work, including an analysis of how it has been misinterpreted and a review of recent, legitimate challenges to his claims. Wilensky, in Ref. 5, and Smith et al., in Ref. 7, debunked the popular distinction between abstract and concrete.
37. See especially Reif, 1995, in Ref. 3 and citations therein.
38. D. Kuhn, "Children and adults as intuitive scientists," Psych. Rev. 96(4), 674-689 (1989); "Connecting scientific and informal reasoning," Merrill-Palmer Q. 39(1), 74-103 (1993).
39. D. Kuhn, "Children and adults as intuitive scientists," Psych. Rev. 96(4), 674-689 (1989); "Connecting scientific and informal reasoning," Merrill-Palmer Q. 39(1), 74-103 (1993).
40. Quoted in U. Haber-Schaim, J. B. Cross, J. H. Dodge, and J. A. Walter, PSSC Physics (D. C. Heath and Company, Lexington, MA, 1976), p. 224.
41. For example, "vec" diagrams discussed in J. D. Novak and D. B. Gowin, Learning How to Learn (Cambridge U.P., New York, 1984).
42. P. W. Hewson, "Epistemological commitments in the learning of science: Examples from dynamics," Eur. J. Sci. Ed. 7(2), 163-172 (1985); F. Reif and J. H. Larkin, "Cognition in Scientific and Everyday Domains: Comparison and Learning Implications," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 28 (9), 733-760 (1991); R. F. Gunstone, "Constructivism and metacognition: Theoretical issues and classroom studies," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit; F. Goldberg and H. Niedderer, (IPN. Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 129-140.
43. P. W. Hewson, "Epistemological commitments in the learning of science: Examples from dynamics," Eur. J. Sci. Ed. 7(2), 163-172 (1985); F. Reif and J. H. Larkin, "Cognition in Scientific and Everyday Domains: Comparison and Learning Implications," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 28 (9), 733-760 (1991); R. F. Gunstone, "Constructivism and metacognition: Theoretical issues and classroom studies," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit; F. Goldberg and H. Niedderer, (IPN. Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 129-140.
44. P. W. Hewson, "Epistemological commitments in the learning of science: Examples from dynamics," Eur. J. Sci. Ed. 7(2), 163-172 (1985); F. Reif and J. H. Larkin, "Cognition in Scientific and Everyday Domains: Comparison and Learning Implications," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 28 (9), 733-760 (1991); R. F. Gunstone, "Constructivism and metacognition: Theoretical issues and classroom studies," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit; F. Goldberg and H. Niedderer, (IPN. Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 129-140.
45. D. Hammer, "Epistemological beliefs in introductory physics," Cognit. Instruct. 12(2), 151-183 (1994).
46. The article cited in Ref. 13 focuses on epistemological considerations in analyzing another discussion from this course.
47. D. Ball, "With an eye on the mathematical horizon: dilemmas of teaching elementary school mathematics," Elem. Sch. J. 93(4), 373-397 (1993); D. Hammer, "Student inquiry in a physics class discussion," Cognit. Instruct. 13(3), 401-430 (1995).
48. D. Ball, "With an eye on the mathematical horizon: dilemmas of teaching elementary school mathematics," Elem. Sch. J. 93(4), 373-397 (1993); D. Hammer, "Student inquiry in a physics class discussion," Cognit. Instruct. 13(3), 401-430 (1995).
49. It may be familiar in everyday thought to attribute aspects of someone's behavior to the situation rather than to individual traits, such as in understanding why someone behaves 'like a different person' depending on the particular group of people, the activity, and the setting.
50. J. S. Brown, A. Collins, and P. Duguid, "Situated cognition and the culture of learning," Ed. Research. 32-42 (1989); P. Cobb, "Where is the mind? Constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on mathematical development," Ed. Research. 23(7), 13-20 (1994).
51. J. S. Brown, A. Collins, and P. Duguid, "Situated cognition and the culture of learning," Ed. Research. 32-42 (1989); P. Cobb, "Where is the mind? Constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on mathematical development," Ed. Research. 23(7), 13-20 (1994).
52. J. Lave and E. Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge U.P., New York, 1991).
53. That I have chosen to present this view under the heading "Thinking like a physicist," rather than under the heading "Knowledge about physical phenomena," may be misleading: Most versions of this perspective would not admit a distinction between these two categories.
54. Some versions of this perspective, (e.g., Lave and Wenger, Ref. 38), I should note, seem to leave little room for the possibility of formal instruction: Learning means becoming enculturated in a community, and that can happen only through participation in that community. Such participation does not take place in schools.
55. L. S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Harvard U.P., Cambridge, MA, 1978).
56. A. Collins, "The role of computer technology in restructuring schools", Phi Delta Kappan 73, 28-36 (1991).
57. J. Clement, "Nonformal reasoning in experts and in science students: The use of analogies, extreme cases, and physical intuition," in Informal Reasoning and Education, edited by J. Voss; D. Perkins and J. Siegel (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1991), pp. 345-362.
58. B. Sherin; A. diSessa and D. Hammer, "Dynaturtle revisited: Learning physics through collaborative design of a computer model," Interact. Learn. Environ. 3(2), 91-118 (1993).
59. W. B. Perry, Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1970).
60. Reference 45, pp. 211-212.
61. Reference 1, p. 53.
62. D. Hestenes, M. Wells, and G. Swackhamer, "Force Concept Inventory," Phys. Teach. 30(3), 141-158 (1992).
63. For debate concerning what the FCI measures, see D. Huffman and P. Heller, "What does the Force Concept Inventory actually measure?," Phys. Teach. 33(3), 138-143 (1995); D. Hestenes and I. Halloun, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A response to March 1995 critique by Huffman and Heller," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 502, 504-506 (1995); P. Heller and D. Huffman, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A reply to Hestenes and Halloun," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 503, 507-511 (1995).
64. For debate concerning what the FCI measures, see D. Huffman and P. Heller, "What does the Force Concept Inventory actually measure?," Phys. Teach. 33(3), 138-143 (1995); D. Hestenes and I. Halloun, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A response to March 1995 critique by Huffman and Heller," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 502, 504-506 (1995); P. Heller and D. Huffman, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A reply to Hestenes and Halloun," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 503, 507-511 (1995).
65. For debate concerning what the FCI measures, see D. Huffman and P. Heller, "What does the Force Concept Inventory actually measure?," Phys. Teach. 33(3), 138-143 (1995); D. Hestenes and I. Halloun, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A response to March 1995 critique by Huffman and Heller," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 502, 504-506 (1995); P. Heller and D. Huffman, "Interpreting the Force Concept Inventory: A reply to Hestenes and Halloun," Phys. Teach. 33(8), 503, 507-511 (1995).
66. Contrast, for example, the use of a commercial ammeter: Within well-defined conditions of application, the use of an ammeter can be treated as an unproblematic measurement of electric current, reproducible and independent of individual judgment. I am suggesting that this epistemology is not appropriate for the current state of education research.
67. There are a number of suggestions in the literature for discussion-oriented pedagogy in physics instruction, both in high school classes and in college and university courses. See, for example, Van Heuvelen, cited in Ref. 3, and R. R. Hake, "Socratic pedagogy in the introductory physics laboratory," Phys. Teach. 30(9), 546-52 (1992).
68. B. S. Nelson, "Reconceptualizing teaching: Moving toward the creation of intellectual communities of students, teachers, and teacher educators," in Professional Development in an Era of Reform, edited by M. W. McLaughlin (Teachers College Press, New York, in press).
69. A. Feldman, "Teachers learning from teachers: Knowledge and understanding in collaborative action research," Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University (1993).
70. See Refs. 1-3 and citations therein.
71. For example, Treisman found that remedial programs in mathematics at the University of California at Berkeley, designed with the best of intentions out of the conviction that the students needed further practice in basic skills, were making matters worse. U. Treisman, "Studying students studying calculus: A look at the lives of minority mathematics students in college," College Math. J. 23, 362-372 (1992).
72. See Redish's "Individuality Principle," Ref. 2, p. 801; K. A. Strike and G. J. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," in Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, and Educational Theory and Practice, edited by R. A. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (State University of New York, Albany, 1992), pp. 147-176; H. Niedderer and H. Schecker, "Towards an explicit description of cognitive systems for research in physics learning," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer, (IPN, Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 74-98.
73. See Redish's "Individuality Principle," Ref. 2, p. 801; K. A. Strike and G. J. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," in Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, and Educational Theory and Practice, edited by R. A. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (State University of New York, Albany, 1992), pp. 147-176; H. Niedderer and H. Schecker, "Towards an explicit description of cognitive systems for research in physics learning," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer, (IPN, Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 74-98.
74. See Redish's "Individuality Principle," Ref. 2, p. 801; K. A. Strike and G. J. Posner, "A revisionist theory of conceptual change," in Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, and Educational Theory and Practice, edited by R. A. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (State University of New York, Albany, 1992), pp. 147-176; H. Niedderer and H. Schecker, "Towards an explicit description of cognitive systems for research in physics learning," in Research in Physics Learning: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Studies, edited by R. Duit, F. Goldberg, and H. Niedderer, (IPN, Kiel, Germany, 1992), pp. 74-98.
75. Such as at the University of Washington, Seattle, and San Diego State University. See, L. C. McDermott, "A perspective on teacher preparation in physics and other sciences: The need for special science courses for teachers," Am. J. Phys. 58(8), 734-742 (1990).
76. Such as found in J. Minstrell, "Teaching science for understanding," in Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research, edited by L. Resnick and L. Klopfer (ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1989), pp. 129-149; W.-M. Roth and A. Roychoudhury, "The development of science process skills in authentic contexts," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 30(2), 127-152 (1993); and in Refs. 12, 13, and 34.
77. Such as found in J. Minstrell, "Teaching science for understanding," in Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research, edited by L. Resnick and L. Klopfer (ASCD, Alexandria, VA, 1989), pp. 129-149; W.-M. Roth and A. Roychoudhury, "The development of science process skills in authentic contexts," J. Res. Sci. Teach. 30(2), 127-152 (1993); and in Refs. 12, 13, and 34.
78. Bruner, 1986, cited in Ref. 10; J. H. Shulman, Case Methods in Teacher Education (Teachers College Press, New York, 1992); D. Shifter, What's Happening in Math Class; Issues of Practice in Teacher Narratives from the Mathematics Education Reform Movement. (Teachers College Press, New York, 1995).
79. Bruner, 1986, cited in Ref. 10; J. H. Shulman, Case Methods in Teacher Education (Teachers College Press, New York, 1992); D. Shifter, What's Happening in Math Class; Issues of Practice in Teacher Narratives from the Mathematics Education Reform Movement. (Teachers College Press, New York, 1995).
80. Bruner, 1986, cited in Ref. 10; J. H. Shulman, Case Methods in Teacher Education (Teachers College Press, New York, 1992); D. Shifter, What's Happening in Math Class; Issues of Practice in Teacher Narratives from the Mathematics Education Reform Movement. (Teachers College Press, New York, 1995).